The recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIB) is becoming increasingly important with regard to environmental, economic, geostrategic, and health aspects due to the increasing amount of LIB produced, introduced into the market, and being spent in the following years. The recycling itself becomes a challenge to face on one hand the special aspects of LIB-technology and on the other hand to reply to the idea of circular economy. In this paper, we analyze the different recycling concepts for spent LIBs and categorize them according to state-of-the-art schemes of waste treatment technology. Therefore, we structure the different processes into process stages and unit processes. Several recycling technologies are treating spent lithium-ion batteries worldwide focusing on one or several process stages or unit processes.
Variable interfacial tension could
be desirable for many applications.
Beyond classical stimuli like temperature, we introduce an electrochemical
approach employing polymers. Hence, aqueous solutions of the nonionic–cationic
block copolymer poly(ethylene oxide)114-b-poly{[2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]diisopropylmethylammonium chloride}171 (i.e., PEO114-b-PDPAEMA171 with a quaternized poly(diisopropylaminoethyl methacrylate)
block) were investigated by emerging drop measurements and dynamic
light scattering, analyzing the PEO114-b-qPDPAEMA171 impact on the interfacial
tension between water and n-decane and its micellar
formation in the aqueous bulk phase. Potassium hexacyanoferrates (HCFs)
were used as electroactive complexants for the charged block, which
convert the bishydrophilic copolymer into amphiphilic species. Interestingly,
ferricyanides ([Fe(CN)6]3–) act as stronger
complexants than ferrocyanides ([Fe(CN)6]4–), leading to an insoluble qPDPAEMA block in the
presence of ferricyanides. Hence, bulk micellization was demonstrated
by light scattering. Due to their addressability, in situ redox experiments
were performed to trace the interfacial tension under electrochemical
control, directly utilizing a drop shape analyzer. Here, the open-circuit
potential (OCP) was changed by electrolysis to vary the ratio between
ferricyanides and ferrocyanides in the aqueous solution. While a chemical
oxidation/reduction is feasible, also an electrochemical oxidation
leads to a significant change in the interfacial tension properties.
In contrast, a corresponding electrochemical reduction showed only
a slight response after converting ferricyanides to ferrocyanides.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of the liquid/liquid interface
transferred to a solid substrate showed particles that are in accordance
with the diameter from light scattering experiments of the bulk phase.
In conclusion, the present results could be an important step toward
economic switching of interfaces suitable, e.g., for emulsion breakage.
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