1. For terrestrial carnivores, scat analysis is the technique most often used to determine diets. Various methods of interpreting scat-analysis data exist; however, little is known about how the choice of method affects the results. 2. We reviewed 50 scat-analysis papers to assess the range of methods currently used. Furthermore, we used a large data set from cape fox Vulpes chama and black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas scats to compare 11 scat-analysis methods. Techniques tested included five biomass calculation methods, four frequency of occurrence methods, one method that estimated volume in scats, and another that estimated mass of food items in scats. 3. Frequency of occurrence methods were used in 94% of reviewed papers, and in 50% of papers they were the sole methods used. However, we conclude that frequency of occurrence has the least ecological significance and results can be misleading. Although biomass calculations probably provide the best approximation to true diets, only 23% of reviewed papers used suitable biomass calculation methods when models were available for the study species. 4. Analysis of fox and jackal scats showed that there were significant differences among methods when calculating percent diet composition and niche breadth. Additionally, dietary overlap between species differed considerably among the methods (range of R0 = 0.29-0.79). We conclude that the choice of method can have a significant impact on the results of dietary analysis, and can lead to very different conclusions about a species' ecology. 5. The best approximation of the true diet can be obtained by using a biomass calculation model that was developed for the same species, or for a closely related species with a similar food spectrum. When no such model is available, either the volume or mass of diet components in the scats should be used. To document rare food items, frequency of occurrence data could also be given.

Cape foxes (Vulpes chama) and bat‐eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) are sympatric with black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) over much of southern Africa, although competition with and/or predation by jackals may suppress local populations of both fox species. From 2005 to 2008, we captured, radio‐collared, and monitored 11 cape foxes, 22 bat‐eared foxes, and 15 black‐backed jackals on a game ranch in South Africa to investigate their spatial, habitat, temporal, and dietary resource overlap. Mean annual home‐range sizes were 27.7 km2 for cape foxes, 5.0 km2 for bat‐eared foxes, and 17.8 km2 for jackal family groups. Home ranges overlapped completely between species, although core areas overlapped less (<45%), with cape foxes and jackals overlapping the least (12%). When active, cape foxes, but not bat‐eared foxes, used core areas of jackal groups less than expected. Additionally, both fox species used jackal core areas less than expected for their den sites, suggesting areas outside jackal core areas were used as refuges by foxes. Strong levels of habitat partitioning were not apparent at the study site or home‐range levels, although habitat selection for den sites differed between jackals and cape foxes. Jackals were the most diurnal across seasons, whereas cape foxes were the most nocturnal. Diets overlapped little (R0 = 0.20–0.34) among the canid species, with bat‐eared foxes overlapping the least with the others. Jackals killed at least 5 collared bat‐eared foxes and 1 collared cape fox, indicating potential interference competition, probably for exclusive use of territorial space rather than over shared resources. We conclude that bat‐eared foxes coexisted with jackals primarily by their dietary specialization and group living. Cape foxes coexisted with jackals by exhibiting high levels of spatial, habitat, temporal, and dietary partitioning. Surprisingly, the fox species exhibited positive associations with each other. Our results show the mechanisms that may allow jackals to suppress fox populations, yet also show how foxes, in turn, use different mechanisms to coexist with a dominant canid. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

To investigate the role of black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) as predators, we studied diet, prey selection, and predation impact of jackals on 2 game ranches in South Africa that differed in ungulate diversity and biomass. Results showed that large (>15 kg) ungulate species dominated jackal diets throughout the year on both the less diverse (range of ingested biomass across seasons = 39–78%) and more diverse (26–69%) game ranch. Other important food items included medium‐sized mammals (1–3 kg; 1–26%) and fruit (2–69%), whereas small mammals comprised 3–11% of ingested biomass across seasons on both sites. Jackals were not random in consumption of ungulates, and consumption patterns suggested jackals actively hunted certain species rather than consumed them as carrion. During ungulate birthing periods, jackals consumed almost exclusively those ungulate species that were hiders (i.e., fawns were hidden in tall vegetation away from herd) regardless of ungulate densities, suggesting that primarily fawns were preyed upon. Among hiders, there was a negative relationship (P = 0.01) between body size and percent of population consumed by jackals, indicating smaller species were more susceptible than larger species to jackal predation. Consequently, springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) were always selected over other ungulate species on both sites, and this species was the most impacted by jackal predation. In contrast, ungulate species that were followers (i.e., fawns immediately followed mothers within protection of the herd) were scarcely or not at all consumed by jackals, regardless of body size or density. Medium‐sized mammals were selectively consumed over ungulates, and there was a negative relationship (P < 0.01) between consumption of berries and ungulates, indicating alternative food resources influenced consumption of ungulates on our study sites. Our results will help wildlife managers in Africa identify ungulate species susceptible to jackal predation, and can be used to develop management strategies for reducing jackal predation in areas where it is problematic.

The extent to which black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) selectively consume domestic sheep (Ovis aries) compared to wild prey is unknown. Using faecal analysis and prey surveys, we determined the seasonal diet and prey selection of jackals on a small‐livestock farm in South Africa. Sheep comprised 25–48% of the biomass consumed by jackals across seasons, and consumption peaked during the lambing seasons, indicating sheep often were the main food resource for jackals. Another main food resource was wild ungulates <50 kg, primarily springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), which comprised 8–47% of the biomass consumed. Other important food items were mammals 1–3 kg (4–16%), which included hares (Lepus spp.) and springhares (Pedetes capensis), and small rodents (10–14%). Compared to the biomass available, jackals selectively consumed mammals 1–3 kg over sheep across all seasons, whereas wild ungulates <50 kg were selectively consumed over sheep in most seasons. Our results showed that jackals selectively consumed different food items throughout the year and that wild prey were consistently selected over sheep.

a b s t r a c tWe studied the degree of dietary specialisation of bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) by analysing 177 scats collected on a game ranch in central South Africa. Bat-eared foxes generally are considered to be insectivorous with a distinct specialisation on termites, however, our results indicated a much broader and opportunistic diet. Termites were detected in more than 90% of the scats throughout the year, but they only contributed 12-40% to the ingested biomass across seasons. Instead, fruits, primarily bluebush (Diospyros lycioides), were the most important food category in summer (63% biomass) as well as in autumn (74% biomass). Also, high niche breadth values (B = 5.7-6.9 for frequency of occurrence, B = 1.8-4.1 for biomass data) indicated a rather generalistic feeding behaviour. We also documented numerous cases of opportunistic scavenging on carcasses by bat-eared foxes. The difference with earlier dietary studies of bat-eared foxes might be attributable to geographical and ecological variations among sites and also partly to methodological differences. Concerning the latter, no previous studies considered biomass calculations but instead most assessed the frequency of occurrence of prey items, which likely overestimated the importance of small prey such as termites.

The Cape fox Vulpes chama is one of the least studied Vulpes species, and little is known about their diet. By analyzing contents of scats, we determined the seasonal diet of Cape foxes on Benfontein Game Farm (BGF) in South Africa, and determined the biomass and number of rodents consumed. We also determined the diet of Cape foxes on a nearby private livestock ranch (PR) in winter when sheep were lambing. On BGF, murids were the dominant food item, and comprised 44–90% of the biomass consumed across seasons. Other major food items that were seasonally important were leporids and berries. Although arthropods were frequently consumed, they were negligible in terms of biomass consumed. On PR, sheep were found in 19% of scats, but in relatively low amounts per scat, indicating sheep were likely scavenged rather than predated upon. On BGF, the estimated annual consumption was 3,861 rodent/fox, or about 11 rodent/day/fox. Our results indicate Cape foxes feed primarily on small rodents, and therefore Cape foxes might be beneficial to livestock and game farm owners in southern Africa.

We determined the consumption of fruits and estimated potential seed dispersal of a canid community in semi-arid ecosystems of South Africa by comparing diets, defecation sites, densities and potential seed shadows of cape foxes (Vulpes chama), bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) and black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) on Benfontein and Rooipoort nature reserves. On Benfontein, all canid species consumed the fruit of Diospyros lycioides throughout the year. Jackals, but neither fox species, consumed relatively large amounts of Prosopis spp.(mesquite), an alien invasive. On Rooipoort, jackals had relatively high consumption of Ziziphus mucronata, followed by Grewia flava and D. lycioides. Bat-eared foxes had high consumption of fruit per area, although their seed dispersal potential was low due to their small potential seed shadow and poor germination sites. Cape foxes had the largest potential seed shadow, but their seed dispersal potential was low because of low fruit consumption, low density, and poor germination sites. Jackals had the highest seed dispersal potential because they consumed the most fruit species, had moderate densities, a relatively large potential seed shadow, and mostly

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