accounts for 22 per cent of the global population. 2 Poverty is more than meager physical deprivation of goods and services. It has social and psychological effects that prevent people from realizing their own potential. The incidence of poverty is generally defined as the proportion of the population that does not have enough income to purchase a reference food bundle yielding a specified amount of calories per day and to provide for a modest allowance for non-food commodities and services. 3 According to the Pakistan Socio Economic Survey (PSES) 1998-99.

PurposeThe COVID-19 pandemic has profound implications on the food and nutritional security of millions of households. The study assessed the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on diet diversity, calorie consumption and intake of essential nutrients based on the gender of the households.Design/methodology/approachMixed-design ANOVA and logistic regression were used to analyze the collected data from 260 female- and 463 male-headed households through an online survey in Pakistan.FindingsThe outcomes revealed that the diet diversity of female households was affected more due to the COVID-19 compared to male households. The decline in daily nutrients' (protein, phosphorus, zinc, iron and iodine) intake during the COVID-19 was also greater for female-headed households than male-headed households. The share of all food groups in daily calorie and nutrient provision decreased significantly during the COVID-19 for both types of households. The share of meat and meat products declined more for female-headed households compared to male-headed households. The share of perishable commodities in calorie provision to female and male households decreased 2% during the COVID-19 compared to the normal period. Small- and medium-sized female and male households were less likely to experience worsened diet diversity than large-sized households during the COVID-19. Low-income compared to medium- and high-income female and male households were more likely to report declined food diversity during the COVID-19.Research limitations/implicationsThe data used in this study were collected through an online survey due to public health measures imposed in the country.Originality/valueDespite the emergence of literature on the implications of the pandemic on food security, the studies related to the gender-based impacts of COVID-19 on diet diversity and nutritional intakes of necessary nutrients are still non-existent. The current study will add to the literature by filling this gap.

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Child labour has emerged as a serious, widespread and growing problem in many parts of the world. Asia has a large number of children employed as child labourers. Child Labour Survey 1996 reports that there are 3.3 million children working between the ages of 5 and 14 years in Pakistan. Developed countries have linked trade with child labour through the Harkin Bill and the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Agreement (1994), which banned the market manufactured or mined goods produced in whole or in part by children under 15 years of age. Pakistan is also facing restrictions on some of its exports due to allegations of child labour. However, Pakistan has enacted the Employment of Children Act of 1991, which has banned employment of children below the age of 14 years.

Recent years have witnessed growing interest in analysing the welfare outcomes of female headed households (FHHs) in the developing world. The theoretical argument for examining female headship and family welfare is underpinned by two important considerations. The first concerns households’ access to resources, while the second pertains to control over the allocation of resources within the household [DeGraff and Bilsborrow (1993)]. A priori female headed households are expected to have access to a lower level of resources than the conventional male-headed households for a variety of reasons.1 However, this lower resource envelop experienced by female headed households may be partially offset by the way resources are allocated within such households. Several studies have revealed that resources under the control of women are more likely to be allocated for productive purposes that promote family welfare as compared to resource allocation under the control of men. In the context of Pakistan, the present paper aims to explore how resource allocation within female headed households differs from male headed households by examining the consumption patterns of both female and male headed households in the country.