Dendritic cell (DC) homing to the lymphatics and positioning within the lymph node is important for adaptive immunity, and is regulated by gradients of CCL19 and CCL21, ligands for CCR7. Despite the importance of DC chemotaxis, it is not well understood how DCs interpret gradients of these chemokines in a complex 3D microenvironment. Here, we use a microfluidic device that allows rapid establishment of stable gradients in 3D matrices to show that DC chemotaxis in 3D can respond to CCR7 ligand gradients as small as 0.4%, which helps explain how DCs sense lymphatic vessels in an environment where broadcast distance for chemokine diffusion is hindered by convective flows into the vessel. Interestingly, DCs displayed similar sensitivities to both chemokines at small gradients (≤60 nM∕mm), but migrated more efficiently towards higher gradients of CCL21, which unlike CCL19 binds strongly to matrix proteoglycans and signals without the need for internalization. Furthermore, cells preferentially migrated towards CCL21 when exposed to equal and opposite gradients of CCL21 and CCL19 simultaneously, even when matrix-binding of CCL21 was prevented. Although these ligands have similar binding affinity to CCR7, our results demonstrate that, in a 3D environment, CCL21 is a more potent directional cue for DC migration than CCL19. These findings provide new quantitative insight into DC chemotaxis in a physiological 3D environment and suggest how CCL19 and CCL21 may signal differently to fine-tune DC homing and positioning within the lymphatic system. These results also have broad relevance to other systems of cell chemotaxis, which remain poorly understood in the 3D context.D endritic cells (DCs) are considered the most potent and professional antigen-presenting cells. DCs are positioned throughout the periphery, and when activated, migrate to lymphatic vessels and into lymph nodes, where they can direct antigen-specific Tcell responses. Upon activation or maturation, DCs upregulate the C-C chemokine-receptor CCR7, which allows them to sense and home towards CCR7 ligand-secreting lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes (1). The two known ligands for CCR7 are the C-C chemokines CCL21 and CCL19 (2); both are secreted by stromal cells in the lymph node paracortex to properly position DCs with CCR7 þ naïve T cells for their activation. CCL21, but not CCL19, is also expressed by the endothelium of lymphatic vessels in the periphery (1). Thus, CCR7-mediated chemotaxis is critical for DC homing to, and positioning within, lymph nodes and for T cell activation there (3).CCL19 and CCL21 function as directional signals presumably by virtue of concentration gradients (∇C) that guide DCs towards areas of increasing concentrations. Interestingly, CCL19 and CCL21 have similar binding affinities for CCR7 (4-6) and similar chemotactic potential for DCs and T cells under 2D conditions (7,8), but differ in their internalization (8, 9) as well as their binding affinity to extracellular matrix (ECM) proteoglycans. Specifically, the positively charged C t...

The migration of cells such as leukocytes, tumor cells, and fibroblasts through 3D matrices is critical for regulating homeostasis and immunity and for driving pathogenesis. Interstitial flow through the extracellular matrix, which can substantially increase during inflammation and in the tumor microenvironment, can influence cell migration in multiple ways. Leukocytes and tumor cells are heterogeneous in their migration responses to flow, yet most 3D migration studies use endpoint measurements representing average characteristics. Here we present a robust new microfluidic device for 3D culture with live imaging under well-controlled flow conditions, along with a comparison of analytical methods for describing the migration behavior of heterogeneous cell populations. We then use the model to provide new insight on how interstitial flow affects MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell invasion, phenomena that are not seen from averaged or endpoint measurements. Specifically, we find that interstitial flow increases the percentage of cells that become migratory, and increases migrational speed in about 20% of the cells. It also increases the migrational persistence of a subpopulation (5-10% of cells) in the positive or negative flow direction. Cells that migrated upstream moved faster but with less directedness, whereas cells that migrated in the direction of flow moved at slower speeds but with higher directedness. These findings demonstrate how fluid flow in the tumor microenvironment can enhance tumor cell invasion by directing a subpopulation of tumor cells in the flow direction; i.e., towards the draining lymphatic vessels, a major route of metastasis.

The current state-of-art in 3D microfluidic chemotaxis device (μFCD) is limited by the inherent coupling of the fluid flow and chemical concentration gradients. Here, we present an agarose-based 3D μFCD that decouples these two important parameters, in that the flow control channels are separated from the cell compartment by an agarose gel wall. This decoupling is enabled by the transport property of the agarose gel, which-in contrast to the conventional microfabrication material such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-provides an adequate physical barrier for convective fluid flow while at the same time readily allowing protein diffusion. We demonstrate that in this device, a gradient can be pre-established in an agarose layer above the cell compartment (a gradient buffer) before adding the 3D cell-containing matrix, and the dextran (10 kDa) concentration gradients can be re-established within 10 min across the cell-containing matrix and remain stable indefinitely. We successfully quantified the chemotactic response of murine dendritic cells to a gradient of CCL19, an 8.8 kDa lymphoid chemokine, within a type I collagen matrix. This model system is easy to set up, highly reproducible, and will benefit research on 3D chemoinvasion studies, for example with cancer cells or immune cells. Because of its gradient buffering capacity, it is particularly suitable for studying rapidly migrating cells like mature dendritic cells and neutrophils.

The formation of neuronal networks, during development and regeneration, requires outgrowth of axons along reproducible paths toward their appropriate postsynaptic target cells. Axonal extension occurs at growth cones (GCs) at the tips of axons. GC advance and navigation requires the activity of their cytoskeletal networks, comprising filamentous actin (F-actin) in lamellipodia and filopodia as well as dynamic microtubules (MTs) emanating from bundles of the axonal core. The molecular mechanisms governing these two cytoskeletal networks, their cross-talk, and their response to extracellular signaling cues are only partially understood, hindering our conceptual understanding of how regulated changes in GC behavior are controlled. Here, we introduce Drosophila GCs as a suitable model to address these mechanisms. Morphological and cytoskeletal readouts of Drosophila GCs are similar to those of other models, including mammals, as demonstrated here for MT and F-actin dynamics, axonal growth rates, filopodial structure and motility, organizational principles of MT networks, and subcellular marker localization. Therefore, we expect fundamental insights gained in Drosophila to be translatable into vertebrate biology. The advantage of the Drosophila model over others is its enormous amenability to combinatorial genetics as a powerful strategy to address the complexity of regulatory networks governing axonal growth. Thus, using pharmacological and genetic manipulations, we demonstrate a role of the actin cytoskeleton in a specific form of MT organization (loop formation), known to regulate GC pausing behavior. We demonstrate these events to be mediated by the actin-MT linking factor Short stop, thus identifying an essential molecular player in this context.

Dendrites represent arborising neurites in both vertebrates and invertebrates. However, in vertebrates, dendrites develop on neuronal cell bodies, whereas in higher invertebrates, they arise from very different neuronal structures, the primary neurites, which also form the axons. Is this anatomical difference paralleled by principal developmental and/or physiological differences? We address this question by focussing on one cellular model, motorneurons of Drosophila and characterise the compartmentalisation of these cells. We find that motorneuronal dendrites of Drosophila share with typical vertebrate dendrites that they lack presynaptic but harbour postsynaptic proteins, display calcium elevation upon excitation, have distinct cytoskeletal features, develop later than axons and are preceded by restricted localisation of Par6-complex proteins. Furthermore, we demonstrate in situ and culture that Drosophila dendrites can be shifted from the primary neurite to their soma, i.e. into vertebrate-like positions. Integrating these different lines of argumentation, we propose that dendrites in vertebrates and higher invertebrates have a common origin, and differences in dendrite location can be explained through translocation of neuronal cell bodies introduced during the evolutionary process by which arthropods and vertebrates diverged from a common urbilaterian ancestor. Implications of these findings for studies of dendrite development, neuronal polarity, transport and evolution are discussed.

BackgroundNext-generation sequencing (NGS) of antibody variable regions has emerged as a powerful tool in systems immunology by providing quantitative molecular information on polyclonal humoral immune responses. Reproducible and robust information on antibody repertoires is valuable for basic and applied immunology studies: thus, it is essential to establish the reliability of antibody NGS data.ResultsWe isolated RNA from antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) from either 1 mouse or a pool of 9 immunized mice in order to simulate both normal and high diversity populations. Next, we prepared three technical replicates of antibody libraries by RT-PCR from each diversity scenario, which were sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform resulting in >106 250 bp paired-end reads per replicate. We then assessed the robustness of antibody repertoire data based on clonal identification defined by amino acid sequence of either full-length VDJ region or the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3). Leveraging modeling approaches adapted from mathematical ecology, we found that in either diversity scenario both CDR3 and VDJ detection nears completeness indicating deep coverage of ASC repertoires. Additionally, we defined reliability thresholds for accurate quantification and ranking of CDR3s and VDJs. Importantly, we show that both factors(i) replicate sequencing and (ii) sequencing depth–are crucial for robust CDR3 and VDJ detection and ranking.ConclusionsIn summary, we established widely applicable experimental and computational guidelines for robust antibody NGS and analysis, which will help advance systems immunology studies related to the quantitative profiling of antibody responses following infection and vaccination.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-014-0040-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

High-throughput sequencing (HTS) of antibody repertoire libraries has become a powerful tool in the field of systems immunology. However, numerous sources of bias in HTS workflows may affect the obtained antibody repertoire data. A crucial step in antibody library preparation is the addition of short platform-specific nucleotide adapter sequences. As of yet, the impact of the method of adapter addition on experimental library preparation and the resulting antibody repertoire HTS datasets has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, we compared three standard library preparation methods by performing Illumina HTS on antibody variable heavy genes from murine antibody-secreting cells. Clonal overlap and rank statistics demonstrated that the investigated methods produced equivalent HTS datasets. PCR-based methods were experimentally superior to ligation with respect to speed, efficiency, and practicality. Finally, using a two-step PCR based method we established a protocol for antibody repertoire library generation, beginning from inputs as low as 1 ng of total RNA. In summary, this study represents a major advance towards a standardized experimental framework for antibody HTS, thus opening up the potential for systems-based, cross-experiment meta-analyses of antibody repertoires.

Increasing evidence suggests that antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) can enhance anti-tumor immunity and improve clinical outcome. Here, we elucidate the therapeutic efficacy and immune-mediated mechanisms of a novel HER2-targeting ADC bearing a potent anthracycline derivate as payload (T-PNU) in a human HER2-expressing syngeneic breast cancer model resistant to trastuzumab and ado-trastuzumab emtansine. Mechanistically, the anthracycline component of the novel ADC induced immunogenic cell death leading to exposure and secretion of danger-associated molecular signals. RNA sequencing derived immunogenomic signatures and TCRβ clonotype analysis of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes revealed a prominent role of the adaptive immune system in the regulation of T-PNU mediated anti-cancer activity. Depletion of CD8 T cells severely reduced T-PNU efficacy, thus confirming the role of cytotoxic T cells as drivers of the T-PNU mediated anti-tumor immune response. Furthermore, T-PNU therapy promoted immunological memory formation in tumor-bearing animals protecting those from tumor rechallenge. Finally, the combination of T-PNU and checkpoint inhibition, such as α-PD1, significantly enhanced tumor eradication following the treatment. In summary, a novel PNU-armed, HER2-targeting ADC elicited long-lasting immune protection in a murine orthotopic breast cancer model resistant to other HER2-directed therapies. Our findings delineate the therapeutic potential of this novel ADC payload and support its clinical development for breast cancer patients and potentially other HER2 expressing malignancies.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s40425-018-0464-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.