Fish disease is a major stumbling block towards sustainable growth of the fisheries sector. Aeromonas hydrophila, which is a major infectious aquatic pathogen is reportedly the causative agent of ulcers, fin-rot, tail-rot, hemorrhagic septicemia in fish, and has reportedly developed resistance against many of the available antibiotics. In this context, the inhibitory function of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against A. hydrophila was studied to evaluate its possible application in aquaculture as alternative to antibiotics. AgNPs were synthesized using the leaf extracts of subtropical plants Mangifera indica (Mango), Eucalyptus terticornis (Eucalyptus), Carica papaya (Papaya) and Musa paradisiaca (Banana). The absorbance maxima, size range and shape of the AgNPs as characterized by the UV-Vis spectroscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were, Mangifera-442, 50-65 nm, ovular; Eucalyptus-465, 60-150 nm, oval; Carica-442, 25-40 nm, round, irregular; and Musa-454, 10-50 nm, round, irregular, respectively. Well-diffusion of these AgNPs for their antimicrobial characteristics exhibited that, the papaya leaf extract synthesized AgNPs had maximum antimicrobial activity at 153.6 μg/ml concentrations, and that from the eucalyptus leaves was least effective. As observed, the potency of the nanoparticles enhanced with the decrease in particle size, from 60-150 nm in eucalyptus to 25-40 nm in papaya. Due to its purely natural sourcing, phytosynthesized AgNPs can be applied as alternative to antibiotics and other biocides as a cost-effective and eco-friendly therapeutic agent against A. hydrophila stimulated diseases in aquatic animals.
Fifteen water abstraction structures along the two streams adjacent to the NIASM site were selected for studying the geochemistry of the groundwater and abiotic factors responsible for their distribution. The results indicated that the groundwater is alkaline with high electrical conductivity (EC). The Total Hardness is below the prescribed drinking water limit whereas Na concentrations are far below the permissible limit. The sodium absorption ration (SAR) distribution pattern indicated downstream increase in the areas due to surfacial obstruction of the natural drainage system. EC of water shows a positive correlation with major cations Ca + Mg (R 2 = 0.63) and Na + K (R 2 = 0.61) which indicates a strong lithological control on the major oxide cations of the groundwaters. There is a strong positive correlation between EC and Cl (R 2 = 0.96) while the correlation between EC and HCO3 is weak (R 2 = 0.12) indicating that the amount of chloride in the groundwater controls the EC. The samples showed considerable scatter with a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.19) between NO3-N and EC. Such variation in the NO3-N concentration from the groundwaters reflects the role of physical process such as evaporation and /or anthropogenic additions to the groundwater. The SO4 concentration showed no distinct correlation with EC (R 2 = 0.07) indicating that its concentration did not contribute to the conductivity of groundwaters from the NIASM site. Based on the SAR values, the groundwater for irrigation purposes are classified as 'good' and most of them belong to the Ca+Mg>Na+K; HCO3+CO3>Cl+SO4 facies.
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