Defining the functional status of host-associated microbial ecosystems has proven challenging owing to the vast number of predicted genes within the microbiome and relatively poor understanding of community dynamics and community-host interaction. Metabolomic approaches, in which a large number of small molecule metabolites can be defined in a biological sample, offer a promising avenue to 'fingerprint' microbiota functional status. Here, we examined the effects of the human gut microbiota on the fecal and urinary metabolome of a humanized (HUM) mouse using an optimized ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based method. Differences between HUM and conventional mouse urine and fecal metabolomic profiles support host-specific aspects of the microbiota's metabolomic contribution, consistent with distinct microbial compositions. Comparison of microbiota composition and metabolome of mice humanized with different human donors revealed that the vast majority of metabolomic features observed in donor samples are produced in the corresponding HUM mice, and individual-specific features suggest 'personalized' aspects of functionality can be reconstituted in mice. Feeding the mice a defined, custom diet resulted in modification of the metabolite signatures, illustrating that host diet provides an avenue for altering gut microbiota functionality, which in turn can be monitored via metabolomics. Using a defined model microbiota consisting of one or two species, we show that simplified communities can drive major changes in the host metabolomic profile. Our results demonstrate that metabolomics constitutes a powerful avenue for functional characterization of the intestinal microbiota and its interaction with the host.

Stable isotope probing (SIP) of nucleic acids is a powerful tool that can identify the functional capabilities of noncultivated microorganisms as they occur in microbial communities. While it has been suggested previously that nucleic acid SIP can be performed with 15 N, nearly all applications of this technique to date have used 13 C. Successful application of SIP using 15 N-DNA ( 15 N-DNA-SIP) has been limited, because the maximum shift in buoyant density that can be achieved in CsCl gradients is approximately 0.016 g ml ؊1 for 15 N-labeled DNA, relative to 0.036 g ml ؊1 for 13 C-labeled DNA. In contrast, variation in genome G؉C content between microorganisms can result in DNA samples that vary in buoyant density by as much as 0.05 g ml ؊1 . Thus, natural variation in genome G؉C content in complex communities prevents the effective separation of 15

Summary BRAF is the most prevalent oncogene and an important therapeutic target in melanoma. In some cancers BRAF is activated by rearrangements that fuse its kinase domain to 5’ partner genes. We examined 848 comparative genomic hybridization profiles of melanocytic tumors and found copy number transitions within BRAF in 10 tumors, of which six could be further characterized by sequencing. In all, the BRAF kinase domain was fused in-frame to six different N-terminal partners. No other mutations were identified in melanoma oncogenes. One of seven melanoma cell lines without known oncogenic mutations harbored a similar BRAF fusion, which constitutively activated the MAP-kinase pathway. Sorafenib, but not vemurafenib, could block MAP-kinase pathway activation and proliferation of the cell line at clinically relevant concentrations, whereas BRAFV600E mutant melanoma cell lines were significantly more sensitive to vemurafenib. The patient from whom the cell line was derived showed a durable clinical response to sorafenib.

Biological nitrogen fixation is a fundamental component of the nitrogen cycle and is the dominant natural process through which fixed nitrogen is made available to the biosphere. While the process of nitrogen fixation has been studied extensively with a limited set of cultivated isolates, examinations of nifH gene diversity in natural systems reveal the existence of a wide range of noncultivated diazotrophs. These noncultivated diazotrophs remain uncharacterized, as do their contributions to nitrogen fixation in natural systems. We have employed a novel 15 N 2 -DNA stable isotope probing ( 5 N 2 -DNA-SIP) method to identify free-living diazotrophs in soil that are responsible for nitrogen fixation in situ. Analyses of 16S rRNA genes from 15 N-labeled DNA provide evidence for nitrogen fixation by three microbial groups, one of which belongs to the Rhizobiales while the other two represent deeply divergent lineages of noncultivated bacteria within the Betaproteobacteria and Actinobacteria, respectively. Analysis of nifH genes from 15 N-labeled DNA also revealed three microbial groups, one of which was associated with Alphaproteobacteria while the others were associated with two noncultivated groups that are deeply divergent within nifH cluster I. These results reveal that noncultivated free-living diazotrophs can mediate nitrogen fixation in soils and that 15 N 2 -DNA-SIP can be used to gain access to DNA from these organisms. In addition, this research provides the first evidence for nitrogen fixation by Actinobacteria outside of the order Actinomycetales.

Members of the Planctomycetes, which were once thought to occur primarily in aquatic environments, have been discovered in soils on five continents, revealing that these Bacteria are a widespread and numerically abundant component of microbial communities in soil. We examined the diversity of Planctomycetes in soil samples obtained from experimental plots at an agricultural site in order to assess the extent of Planctomycetes diversity in soil, to determine whether management effects such as past land cover and compost addition affected the composition of the Planctomycetes community, and to determine whether the observations made could provide insight into the ecological distribution of these organisms. Analysis of Planctomycetes 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed a total of 312 ؎ 35 unique phylotypes in the soil at the site examined. The majority of these Planctomycetes sequences were unique, and the sequences had phylogenetic affiliations that included all major lineages in the Planctomycetaceae, as well as several novel groups of deeply divergent Planctomycetes. Both soil management history and compost amendment had significant effects on the Planctomycetes diversity, and variations in soil organic matter, Ca 2؉ content, and pH were associated with variations in the Planctomycetes community composition. In addition, Planctomycetes richness increased in proportion to the area sampled and was correlated with the spatial heterogeneity of nitrate, which was associated with the soil management history at the orchard site examined. This report provides the first systematic assessment of the diversity of Planctomycetes in soil and also provides evidence that the diversity of this group increases with area as defined by the general power law description of the taxon-area relationship.The Planctomycetes are a widespread and numerically abundant microbial group that represents one of the main lines of descent in the domain Bacteria (62). Prior to their discovery in an Australian soil in 1992 (35), members of the Planctomycetes were thought to occur primarily in aquatic environments. Since then, Planctomycetes have been found in bacterial 16S rRNA libraries generated from an array of soils on five continents and from a range of habitats, including cultivated, pasture, forest, tundra, and even thermal soils (2,6,7,9,14,15,33,35,46,56,(65)(66)(67). Fluorescent in situ hybridization with Planctomycetesspecific probes has revealed that Planctomycetes account for between 4% and 7% of the cells in agricultural and forest soils (9,65). Planctomycetes also account for 7% Ϯ 5% of the total rRNA extracted from agricultural soils, and their rRNA abundance was second only to that of the alpha-Proteobacteria in a survey that included eight of the main lines of bacterial descent (8). Using an estimate of 7% rRNA abundance for Planctomycetes in arable soils and the estimates of Whitman et al. (64) for the total number of microorganisms in such soils, the global population of Planctomycetes in arable soils may be 1.8 ϫ 10 28 cells. Des...

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Urogenital schistosomiasis, chronic infection by Schistosoma haematobium, affects 112 million people worldwide. S. haematobium worm oviposition in the bladder wall leads to granulomatous inflammation, fibrosis, and egg expulsion into the urine. Despite the global impact of urogenital schistosomiasis, basic understanding of the associated pathologic mechanisms has been incomplete due to the lack of suitable animal models. We leveraged our recently developed mouse model of urogenital schistosomiasis to perform the first-ever profiling of the early molecular events that occur in the bladder in response to the introduction of S. haematobium eggs. Microarray analysis of bladders revealed rapid, differential transcription of large numbers of genes, peaking three weeks post-egg administration. Many differentially transcribed genes were related to the canonical Type 2 anti-schistosomal immune response, as reflected by the development of egg-based bladder granulomata. Numerous collagen and metalloproteinase genes were differentially transcribed over time, revealing complex remodeling and fibrosis of the bladder that was confirmed by Masson's Trichrome staining. Multiple genes implicated in carcinogenesis pathways, including vascular endothelial growth factor-, oncogene-, and mammary tumor-related genes, were differentially transcribed in egg-injected bladders. Surprisingly, junctional adhesion molecule, claudin and uroplakin genes, key components for maintaining the urothelial barrier, were globally suppressed after bladder exposure to eggs. This occurred in the setting of urothelial hyperplasia and egg shedding in urine. Thus, S. haematobium egg expulsion is associated with intricate modulation of the urothelial barrier on the cellular and molecular level. Taken together, our findings have important implications for understanding host-parasite interactions and carcinogenesis in urogenital schistosomiasis, and may provide clues for novel therapeutic strategies.

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