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Personal exposures to nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2 ) were monitored for 176 randomly selected inhabitants ( 25 ± 55 years old ) of Helsinki Metropolitan area as a part of the EXPOLIS ( Air Pollution Exposure Distributions Within Adult Urban Populations in Europe ) study between October 1996 and December 1997. NO 2 measurements were 48 -h averages collected by Palmes passive sampler tubes. Differences in personal exposures to NO 2 were analyzed between subpopulations stratified by microenvironment, behavioral, socioeconomic and demographic factors. Factors significantly associated with differences in exposures to NO 2 were home and work location, housing characteristics, traffic volume near home, season and keeping windows open at home. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke ( ETS ) and use of gas stove were also associated with increased personal exposures, although only few participants had a gas stove in Helsinki, and other gas appliances are non -existent. Single adults had higher average exposures to NO 2 than married or cohabiting participants, suggesting differences in living conditions between these two groups. Increased education was associated with decreased exposures to NO 2 and employed men were more exposed than unemployed men. Increased exposures to NO 2 were not associated with age or occupational status in Helsinki. Thus, behavioral and sociodemographic factors may have significant impact on personal exposures to NO 2 and should be considered in addition to environmental determinants in any monitoring program.

Demographic and socioeconomic differences between population sub -groups were analyzed, as a component of the EXPOLIS ( Air Pollution Exposure Distributions Within Adult Urban Populations in Europe ) Helsinki study, to explain variation in personal exposures to fine particles ( PM 2.5 ) . Two -hundred one individuals were randomly selected among 25 ± 55 -year -old inhabitants of Helsinki Metropolitan area. Personal exposure samples and residential indoor, residential outdoor and workplace indoor microenvironment measurements of PM 2.5 were collected between October 1996 and December 1997. Variation in PM 2.5 personal exposures, between sociodemographic sub -groups, was best described by differences in occupational status, education and age. Lower occupational status, less educated and young participants had greater exposures than upper occupational status, more educated and older participants. Different workplace concentrations explained most of the socioeconomic differences, and personal day and night exposures and concentrations in home ( but not workplace or outdoor concentrations ) caused the PM 2.5 exposure differences between age groups. Men had higher exposures and much larger exposure differences between the sociodemographic groups than women. No gender, socioeconomic or age differences were observed in home outdoor concentrations between groups. Exposure to tobacco smoke did not seem to create new differences between the sociodemographic groups; instead, it amplified the existing differences.