Background Alcohol intoxication can increase inflammation and worsen injury, yet the mechanisms involved are not clear. We investigated whether acute alcohol intoxication elevates microvascular permeability, and investigated potential signaling mechanisms in endothelial cells that may be involved. Methods Conscious rats received a 2.5 g/kg alcohol bolus via gastric catheters to produce acute intoxication. Microvascular leakage of intravenously administered FITC-albumin from the mesenteric microcirculation was assessed by intravital microscopy. Endothelial-specific mechanisms were studied using cultured endothelial cell monolayers. Transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) served as an index of barrier function, before and after treatment with alcohol or its metabolite acetaldehyde. Pharmacologic agents were used to test the roles of alcohol metabolism, oxidative stress, p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), rho kinase (ROCK), and exchange protein activated by cAMP (Epac). VE-cadherin localization was investigated to assess junctional integrity. Rac1 and RhoA activation were assessed by ELISA assays. Results Alcohol significantly increased FITC-albumin extravasation from the mesenteric microcirculation. Alcohol also significantly decreased TER and disrupted VE-cadherin organization at junctions. Acetaldehyde significantly decreased TER, but inhibition of ADH or application of a superoxide dismutase mimetic failed to prevent alcohol-induced decreases in TER. Inhibition of p38 MAP kinase, but not MLCK or ROCK, significantly attenuated the alcohol-induced barrier dysfunction. Alcohol rapidly decreased GTP-bound Rac1 but not RhoA during the drop in TER. Activation of Epac increased TER, but did not prevent alcohol from decreasing TER. However, activation of Epac after initiation of alcohol-induced barrier dysfunction quickly resolved TER to baseline levels. Conclusions Our results suggest that alcohol intoxication increases microvascular permeability to plasma proteins. The data also suggest the endothelial-specific mechanism involves the p38 MAP kinase, Rac1, and reorganization of VE-cadherin at junctions. Lastly, activation of Epac can quickly resolve alcohol-induced endothelial barrier dysfunction.

BackgroundMicrovascular leakage of plasma proteins is a hallmark of inflammation that leads to tissue dysfunction. There are no current therapeutic strategies to reduce microvascular permeability. The purpose of this study was to identify the role of Rnd3, an atypical Rho family GTPase, in the control of endothelial barrier integrity. The potential therapeutic benefit of Rnd3 protein delivery to ameliorate microvascular leakage was also investigated.Methods and ResultsUsing immunofluorescence microscopy, Rnd3 was observed primarily in cytoplasmic areas around the nuclei of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Permeability to fluorescein isothiocyanate–albumin and transendothelial electrical resistance of human umbilical vein endothelial cell monolayers served as indices of barrier function, and RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 activities were determined using G‐LISA assays. Overexpression of Rnd3 significantly reduced the magnitude of thrombin‐induced barrier dysfunction, and abolished thrombin‐induced Rac1 inactivation. Depleting Rnd3 expression with siRNA significantly extended the time course of thrombin‐induced barrier dysfunction and Rac1 inactivation. Time‐lapse microscopy of human umbilical vein endothelial cells expressing GFP‐actin showed that co‐expression of mCherry‐Rnd3 attenuated thrombin‐induced reductions in local lamellipodia that accompany endothelial barrier dysfunction. Lastly, a novel Rnd3 protein delivery method reduced microvascular leakage in a rat model of hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation, assessed by both intravital microscopic observation of extravasation of fluorescein isothiocyanate–albumin from the mesenteric microcirculation, and direct determination of solute permeability in intact isolated venules.ConclusionsThe data suggest that Rnd3 can shift the balance of RhoA and Rac1 signaling in endothelial cells. In addition, our findings suggest the therapeutic, anti‐inflammatory potential of delivering Rnd3 to promote endothelial barrier recovery during inflammatory challenge.

The microvascular endothelium plays an important role as a selectively permeable barrier to fluids and solutes. The adhesive junctions between endothelial cells regulate permeability of the endothelium, and many studies have indicated the important contribution of the actin cytoskeleton to determining junctional integrity [1][2][3][4][5] . A cortical actin belt is thought to be important for the maintenance of stable junctions 1,2,4,5 . In contrast, actin stress fibers are thought to generate centripetal tension within endothelial cells that weakens junctions [2][3][4][5] . Much of this theory has been based on studies in which endothelial cells are treated with inflammatory mediators known to increase endothelial permeability, and then fixing the cells and labeling F-actin for microscopic observation. However, these studies provide a very limited understanding of the role of the actin cytoskeleton because images of fixed cells provide only snapshots in time with no information about the dynamics of actin structures 5 .Live-cell imaging allows incorporation of the dynamic nature of the actin cytoskeleton into the studies of the mechanisms determining endothelial barrier integrity. A major advantage of this method is that the impact of various inflammatory stimuli on actin structures in endothelial cells can be assessed in the same set of living cells before and after treatment, removing potential bias that may occur when observing fixed specimens. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) are transfected with a GFP-β-actin plasmid and grown to confluence on glass coverslips. Timelapse images of GFP-actin in confluent HUVEC are captured before and after the addition of inflammatory mediators that elicit time-dependent changes in endothelial barrier integrity. These studies enable visual observation of the fluid sequence of changes in the actin cytoskeleton that contribute to endothelial barrier disruption and restoration.Our results consistently show local, actin-rich lamellipodia formation and turnover in endothelial cells. The formation and movement of actin stress fibers can also be observed. An analysis of the frequency of formation and turnover of the local lamellipodia, before and after treatment with inflammatory stimuli can be documented by kymograph analyses. These studies provide important information on the dynamic nature of the actin cytoskeleton in endothelial cells that can used to discover previously unidentified molecular mechanisms important for the maintenance of endothelial barrier integrity. Video LinkThe video component of this article can be found at https://www.jove.com/video/3187/ Protocol 1. Transfection of HUVEC with GFP-actin 1. Various methods can be used to transfect HUVEC. Our lab uses the Nucleofector system (Lonza, Basel Switzerland) outlined below. In general, work quickly to improve cell viability and transfection efficiency. Each transfection requires 5 x 10 5 HUVEC that will be seeded onto two glass coverslips (Corning No. 1, 22 x 50 mm). The Nucleofector combines ...

Fluid resuscitation following hemorrhagic shock is often problematic, with development of prolonged hypotension and edema. In addition, many trauma patients are also intoxicated, which generally worsens outcomes. We directly investigated how alcohol intoxication impacts hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation-induced microvascular leakage using a rat model with intravital microscopic imaging. We also tested the hypothesis that an endothelial barrier-protective bioactive lipid, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), could ameliorate the microvascular leakage following alcohol intoxication plus hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation. Our results show that alcohol intoxication exacerbated hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation-induced hypotension and microvascular leakage. We next found that S1P effectively could reverse alcohol-induced endothelial barrier dysfunction using both cultured endothelial cell monolayer and in vivo models. Lastly, we observed that S1P administration ameliorated hypotension and microvascular leakage following combined alcohol intoxication and hemorrhagic shock, in a dose-related manner. These findings suggest the viability of using agonists that can improve microvascular barrier function to ameliorate trauma-induced hypotension, offering a novel therapeutic opportunity for potentially improving clinical outcomes in patients with multi-hit injuries.

Background: Lymphatic function is critical for maintaining interstitial fluid balance and is linked to multiple pathological conditions. While smooth muscle contractile mechanisms responsible for fluid flow through collecting lymphatic vessels are well studied, how fluid flows into and through initial lymphatic networks remains poorly understood. The objective of this study was to estimate the pressure difference needed for flow through an intact initial lymphatic network. Methods and Results: Pressure drops were computed for real and theoretical networks with varying branch orders using a segmental Poiseuille flow model. Vessel geometries per branch order were based on measurements from adult Wistar rat mesenteric initial lymphatic networks. For computational predications based on real network geometries and combinations of low or high output velocities (2 mm/s, 4 mm/s) and viscosities (1 cp, 1.5 cp), pressure drops were estimated to range 0.31-2.57 mmHg. The anatomical data for the real networks were also used to create a set of theoretical networks in order to identify possible minimum and maximum pressure drops. The pressure difference range for the theoretical networks was 0.16-3.16 mmHg. Conclusions:The results support the possibility for suction pressures generated from cyclic smooth muscle contractions of upstream collecting lymphatics being sufficient for fluid flow through an initial lymphatic network.

Hypotension, cardiac depression, and elevated microvascular permeability are known problems that complicate resuscitation of patients following traumatic injury, particularly those who are also intoxicated from alcohol consumption. A conscious rat model of combined alcohol intoxication and hemorrhagic shock has been used to study the hemodynamic mechanisms involved. Here, we describe using this model to study microvascular leakage and cardiac electrical activity.

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We tested the hypothesis that histamine‐induced endothelial barrier dysfunction is associated with disruption of normal actin dynamics at the endothelial cell periphery. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were transfected with GFP‐actin (500 ng vector/5 × 105 cells). Transendothelial resistance (TER) served as an index of barrier function. Time‐lapse image sets were acquired before and after the addition of 10 μM histamine. GFP‐actin expression slightly enhanced histamine‐induced endothelial barrier dysfunction, but did not affect the time course. GFP‐actin was found in cortical fibers moving centrally at a mean rate of 63 nm/min, and in membrane ruffles protruding outward at a mean rate of 1462 nm/min. New cortical fibers formed at a frequency of 0.59/min., and membrane ruffling occurred at a frequency of 0.61 events/min. GFP‐actin also localized in small lamellipodia on the cell periphery. Histamine treatment caused a sudden, coordinated formation of lamellipodia around the cell perimeter, followed by inactivity during the time frame of histamine‐induced barrier dysfunction. Shortly after, lamellepodia and membrane ruffling were restored. The data show that histamine‐indcued barrier dysfunction is associated with a loss of normal cortical actin dynamics in endothelial cells. Supported by NIH RR‐018766 and a grant from the American Heart Association.