This article presents an analysis of the correlates of HIV status among samples of injection drug users (IDUs) in Lang Son Province, Vietnam (n=348), and Ning Ming County, Guangxi Province, China (n=294), who were interviewed and tested for HIV antibody just before the start of a peer-based HIV prevention intervention in this border region. Participants were largely male, in their 20s, and single. Logistic regression analysis suggests that among Chinese IDUs, border-related factors (eg, living closer to the border, buying drugs across the border more frequently) and younger age are the best predictors of HIV positivity. In Vietnam, HIV status seems to drive behavior (eg, some risk reduction practices are predictive of HIV positivity). These differing patterns may reflect the fact that the intertwined epidemics of heroin injection and HIV began earlier and HIV prevalence has reached significantly higher levels in Lang Son than across the border in Ning Ming. Although border-related factors emerge as predictors in Ning Ming, more IDUs in Lang Son are HIV-positive and may be reacting behaviorally to that status. Their greater likelihood of engaging in risk reduction measures may reflect some combination of a belief that risk reduction can slow disease progression and an altruistic desire to avoid infecting others.

BackgroundAs a dual response to the HIV epidemic and the high level of injecting drug use in Vietnam, the Ministry of Health (MOH) initiated a pilot methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) program in Hai Phong and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) in early 2009. The objectives of the pilot were to provide evidence on whether MMT could be successfully implemented in Vietnam and scaled up to other localities.MethodsA prospective study was conducted among 965 opiate drug users admitted to the pilot. Data on demographic characteristics, sexual behaviors, substance use behaviors (including heroin use), and blood-borne virus infection (HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C) were collected at treatment initiation and then again at 3-, 6-, 9-, 12-, 18-, and 24-month intervals thereafter.ResultsTwenty-four months after treatment initiation, heroin use as measured by urine test or self-report had reduced from 100 % of participants at both sites to 14.6 % in Hai Phong and 22.9 % in HCMC. When adjusted for multiple factors in Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) logistic regression modeling, independent predictors of continued heroin use after 24 months of MMT in HCMC were the following: poor methadone adherence (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.7, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.8–7.8); currently on antiretroviral treatment (ART) (AOR = 1.8, 95 % CI 1.4–2.4); currently on TB treatment (AOR = 2.2, 95 % CI 1.4–3.4); currently experiencing family conflict (AOR = 1.6, 95 % CI 1.1–2.4); and currently employed (AOR = 0.8, 95 % CI 0.6–1.0).For Hai Phong participants, predictors were the following: currently on ART (AOR = 2.0, 95 % CI = 1.4–3.0); currently experiencing family conflict (AOR = 2.0, 95 % CI = 1.0–3.9); and moderate adherence to methadone (AOR = 2.1, 95 % CI = 1.2–1.9). In Hai Phong, the percentage of participants who were employed had also increased by end of study from 35.0 to 52.8 %, while in HCMC the level remained relatively unchanged, between 52.2 and 55.1 %.DiscussionStudy findings were used in multiple fora to convince policymakers and the public on the significant and vital role MMT can play in reducing heroin use and improving quality of life for individuals and families. Four years after this study was completed, Vietnam had expanded MMT to 162 clinics in 44 provinces serving 32,000 patients.

Symptom assessment and treatment for people living with HIV (PLHIV) cannot only lead to improvements in quality of life but contribute to combination antiretroviral adherence and early detection of virologic rebound. The majority of PLHIV in Vietnam receive their care in HIV outpatient settings, whereas very few clinics provide palliative care. The Ministry of Health has called for palliative care to be incorporated into existing HIV and cancer services, but there is limited guidance regarding how to operationalize integration. An HIV outpatient clinic palliative care intervention was tested in northern Vietnam to explore the accessibility, acceptability, and feasibility of integrated services. Primary outcome measures included changes in identification and treatment of pain and other symptoms, the prevalence of depression and anxiety, and perceived social support. The palliative care intervention included introduction of tools and mentoring to assess and treat pain and other symptoms as well as mental health and social support screening, counseling, and treatment services. The intervention resulted in significant changes in provider practice and service delivery. Providers and patients reported overall satisfaction with the intervention and resulting improvements in quality of care.

Background: To assess patterns of injecting drug use and HIV prevalence among injecting drug users (IDUs) in an international border area along a major heroin trans-shipment route.

The primary aim of this study was to estimate HIV incidence within a high-risk population in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam using both cross-sectional and prospective methodologies. A secondary aim was to develop a local correction factor for the BED and avidity index incidence assays. The research study design consisted of three phases: (1) cross-sectional, (2) prospective, and (3) BED false recent (BED FR). A total of 1619 high-risk, sexually active individuals were enrolled in the cross-sectional phase and 355 of the opiate-negative, HIV-negative women were subsequently enrolled in the prospective phase. Four-hundred and three men and women with known HIV infection duration of greater than 12 months were enrolled in the BED FR phase. The HIV prevalence for all participants in the cross-sectional phase was 15.8%. HIV incidence in the cross-sectional group was estimated using the BED IgG capture assay and AxSYM avidity index assay for recent HIV infection and incidence within the prospective cohort was determined by observations of HIV seroconversion. HIV incidence in opiate-negative women was estimated using the BED assay to be 0.8% unadjusted and 0.5% after applying the locally derived BED false recent rate of 1.7%; no seroconversions were observed in the prospective cohort. We also screened the cross-sectional samples for evidence of acute infection using nucleic acid testing, 4th generation HIV EIA, and SMARTube coupled with Genscreen and Determine diagnostic tests; no confirmed acute infections were identified by any method. HIV incidence within this opiate-negative study population was low and incidence estimates from the two methods compared favorably with each other. Incidence estimates and false recent rates using the AxSYM assay were higher: AI FRR of 2.7% and adjusted incidence of 1.7% per year (95% CI, 0.6, 2.8). By comparison, both HIV prevalence and incidence estimates for the opiate-positive group were higher.

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In Vietnam’s concentrated HIV epidemic, female sex workers (FSWs) are at increased risk for acquiring and transmitting HIV, largely through their male clients. A high proportion of males in Vietnam report being clients of FSWs. Studying HIV-related risk factors and prevalence among male clients is important, particularly given the potential for male clients to be a ‘bridge’ of HIV transmission to the more general population or to sex workers. Time-location sampling was used to identify FSW in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam’s largest cities, in 2013–2014. Recruited FSWs were asked to refer one male client to the study. Demographic and risk behavior data were collected from FSWs and male clients by administered questionnaires. Biologic specimens collected from male clients were tested for HIV and opiates. Sampling weights, calculated based on the FSWs probability of being selected for enrolment, were applied to prevalence estimates for both FSWs and male clients. Logistic regression models were developed to obtain odds ratios for HIV infection among male clients. A total of 804 male clients were enrolled. Overall, HIV prevalence among male clients was 10.2%; HIV prevalence was 20.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 15.0–27.9%) among those reporting a history of illegal drug use and 32.4% (95% CI 20.2–47.7%) among those with opioids detected in urine. HIV prevalence among male clients did not differ across ‘bridging’ categories defined by condom use with FSWs and regular partners over the previous 6 months. HIV among male clients was associated with a reported history of illegal drug use (OR 3.76; 95% CI 1.87–7.56), current opioid use (OR 2.55; 95% CI 1.02–6.36), and being referred by an FSW who self-reported as HIV-positive (OR 5.37; 95% CI 1.46–19.75). Self-reported HIV prevalence among enrolled FSWs was 2.8%. Based on HIV test results of male clients and self-reported status from FSWs, an estimated 12.1% of male client-FSW pairs were sero-discordant. These results indicate high HIV prevalence among male clients of FSWs, particularly among those with a history of drug use. Programs to expand HIV testing, drug-use harm reduction, and HIV treatment for HIV-infected male clients of FSWs should be considered as key interventions for controlling the HIV epidemic in Vietnam.

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