We construct a family of models for the evolution of energetic particles in the starburst galaxy M82 and compare them to observations to test the calorimeter assumption that all cosmic ray energy is radiated in the starburst region. Assuming constant cosmic ray acceleration efficiency with Milky Way parameters, we calculate the cosmic-ray proton and primary and secondary electron/positron populations as a function of energy. Cosmic rays are injected with Galactic energy distributions and electron-to-proton ratio via Type II supernovae at the observed rate of 0.07 yr −1 . From the cosmic ray spectra, we predict the radio synchrotron and γ -ray spectra. To more accurately model the radio spectrum, we incorporate a multiphase interstellar medium in the starburst region of M82. Our model interstellar medium is highly fragmented with compact dense molecular clouds and dense photoionized gas, both embedded in a hot, low density medium in overall pressure equilibrium. The spectra predicted by this one-zone model are compared to the observed radio and γ -ray spectra of M82. χ 2 tests are used with radio and γ -ray observations and a range of model predictions to find the best-fit parameters. The best-fit model yields constraints on key parameters in the starburst zone of M82, including a magnetic field strength of ∼250 μG and a wind advection speed in the range of 300-700 km s −1 . We find that M82 is a good electron calorimeter but not an ideal cosmic-ray proton calorimeter and discuss the implications of our results for the astrophysics of the far-infrared-radio correlation in starburst galaxies.

The galaxies M82, NGC 253, NGC 1068, and NGC 4945 have been detected in γ-rays by Fermi.Previously, we developed and tested a model for cosmic ray interactions in the starburst galaxy M82. Now, we aim to explore the differences between starburst and active galactic nuclei (AGN) environments by applying our self-consistent model to the starburst galaxy NGC 253 and the Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068. Assuming constant cosmic-ray acceleration efficiency by supernova remnants with Milky-Way parameters, we calculate the cosmic-ray proton and primary and secondary electron/positron populations, predict the radio and γ-ray spectra, and compare with published measurements. We find that our models easily fits the observed γ-ray spectrum for NGC 253 while constraining the cosmic ray source spectral index and acceleration efficiency. However, we encountered difficultly modeling the observed radio data and constraining the speed of the galactic wind and the magnetic field strength, unless the gas mass is less than currently preferred values. Additionally, our starburst model consistently underestimates the observed γ-ray flux and overestimates the radio flux for NGC 1068; these issues would be resolved if the AGN is the primary source of γ-rays. We discuss the implications of these results and make predictions for the neutrino fluxes for both galaxies.

Context. Arp 220 is the prototypical ultra luminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG). Despite extensive studies, the structure at MHzfrequencies has remained unknown because of limits in spatial resolution. Aims. This work aims to constrain the flux and shape of radio emission from Arp 220 at MHz frequencies. Methods. We analyse new observations with the International Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) telescope, and archival data from the Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network (MERLIN) and the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA). We model the spatially resolved radio spectrum of Arp 220 from 150 MHz to 33 GHz. Results. We present an image of Arp 220 at 150 MHz with resolution 0. 65 × 0. 35, sensitivity 0.15 mJy beam −1 , and integrated flux density 394 ± 59 mJy. More than 80% of the detected flux comes from extended (6 ≈ 2.2 kpc) steep spectrum (α = −0.7) emission, likely from star formation in the molecular disk surrounding the two nuclei. We find elongated features extending 0.3 (110 pc) and 0.9 (330 pc) from the eastern and western nucleus respectively, which we interpret as evidence for outflows. The extent of radio emission requires acceleration of cosmic rays far outside the nuclei. We find that a simple three component model can explain most of the observed radio spectrum of the galaxy. When accounting for absorption at 1.4 GHz, Arp 220 follows the FIR/radio correlation with q = 2.36, and we estimate a star formation rate of 220 M yr −1. We derive thermal fractions at 1 GHz of less than 1% for the nuclei, which indicates that a major part of the UV-photons are absorbed by dust. Conclusions. International LOFAR observations shows great promise to detect steep spectrum outflows and probe regions of thermal absorption. However, in LIRGs the emission detected at 150 MHz does not necessarily come from the main regions of star formation. This implies that high spatial resolution is crucial for accurate estimates of star formation rates for such galaxies at 150 MHz.

The energy densities in magnetic fields and cosmic rays (CRs) in galaxies are often assumed to be in equipartition, allowing for an indirect estimate of the magnetic field strength from the observed radio synchrotron spectrum. However, both primary and secondary CRs contribute to the synchrotron spectrum, and the CR electrons also loose energy via bremsstrahlung and inverse Compton. While classical equipartition formulae avoid these intricacies, there have been recent revisions that account for the extreme conditions in starbursts. Yet, the application of the equipartition formula to starburst environments also presupposes that timescales are long enough to reach equilibrium. Here, we test equipartition in the central molecular zones (CMZs) of nearby starburst galaxies by modeling the observed γ-ray spectra, which provide a direct measure of the CR energy density, and the radio spectra, which provide a probe of the magnetic field strength. We find that in starbursts, the magnetic field energy density is significantly larger than the CR energy density, demonstrating that the equipartition argument is frequently invalid for CMZs.

The cores of Arp 220, the closest ultraluminous infrared starburst galaxy, provide an opportunity to study interactions of cosmic rays under extreme conditions. In this paper, we model the populations of cosmic rays produced by supernovae in the central molecular zones of both starburst nuclei. We find that ∼ 65 − 100% of cosmic rays are absorbed in these regions due to their huge molecular gas contents, and thus, the nuclei of Arp 220 nearly complete proton calorimeters. As the cosmic ray protons collide with the interstellar medium, they produce secondary electrons that are also contained within the system and radiate synchrotron emission. Using results from χ 2 tests between the model and the observed radio spectral energy distribution, we predict the emergent γ-ray and high-energy neutrino spectra and find the magnetic field to be at milligauss levels. Because of the extremely intense far-infrared radiation fields, the γ-ray spectrum steepens significantly at TeV energies due to γ-γ absorption.