The gap junction protein connexin-43 is normally located at the intercalated discs of cardiac myocytes, and it plays a critical role in the synchronization of their contraction. The mechanism by which connexin-43 is localized within cardiac myocytes is unknown. However, localization of connexin-43 likely involves an interaction with the cytoskeleton; immunofluorescence microscopy showed that in cardiac myocytes, connexin-43 specifically colocalizes with the cytoskeletal proteins ZO-1 and ␣-spectrin. In transfected HEK293 cells, immunoprecipitation experiments using coexpressed epitopetagged connexin-43 and ZO-1 indicated that ZO-1 links connexin-43 with ␣-spectrin. The domains responsible for the protein-protein interaction between connexin-43 and ZO-1 were identified using affinity binding assays with deleted ZO-1 and connexin-43 fusion proteins. Immunoblot analysis of associated proteins showed that the C-terminal domain of connexin-43 binds to the Nterminal domain of ZO-1. The role of this linkage in gap junction formation was examined by a dominant-negative assay using the N-terminal domain of ZO-1. Overexpression of the N-terminal domain of ZO-1 in connexin-43-expressing cells resulted in redistribution of connexin-43 from cell-cell interfaces to cytoplasmic structures; this intracellular redistribution of connexin-43 coincided with a loss of electrical coupling. We therefore conclude that the linkage between connexin-43 and ␣-spectrin, via ZO-1, may serve to localize connexin-43 at the intercalated discs, thereby generating functional gap junctions in cardiac myocytes.Gap junctions are aggregates of channels at cell-cell interfaces (1-3). Each channel is formed through the docking of two hemichannels located in opposing cell membranes, and each hemichannel is composed of a connexin homohexamer. By permitting the direct exchange of ions and small molecules between cells, these channels play a major role in a wide variety of cellular processes, including embryogenesis, cellular differentiation and development, and electrical coupling. In heart, gap junctions are a prominent feature of intercalated discs, which connect myocytes in an end-to-end orientation; the coupling provided by gap junctions serves to synchronize the activity of cells, thus providing an isochronous front for the wave of excitation that sweeps through ventricular muscle (4, 5).How gap junctions are localized at the intercalated discs in cardiac myocytes is unknown, but a component of gap junctions, connexin-43, may interact with specific elements of the cytoskeleton that restrict its diffusion in the plane of the membrane. Recent studies indicate that a number of membrane proteins are anchored by cytoskeletal elements such as PSD-95/SAP90 (6), ankyrin (7), and ␣-spectrin (8). ZO-1, which has been identified at vertebrate tight junctions (9, 10), is thought to play a role in tissue compartmentalization and in maintaining the apical-basolateral polarity of epithelial cells. In cardiac myocytes, ZO-1 appears at the intercalated discs in the i...

Semaphorins, originally identified as axon guidance factors in the nervous system, play integral roles in organogenesis. Here, we demonstrate a critical involvement of Sema6D in cardiac morphogenesis. Ectopic expression of Sema6D or RNA interference against Sema6D induces expansion or narrowing of the ventricular chamber, respectively, during chick embryonic development. Sema6D also exerts region-specific activities on cardiac explants, a migration-promoting activity on outgrowing cells from the conotruncal segment, and a migration-inhibitory activity on those from the ventricle. Plexin-A1 mediates these activities as the major Sema6D-binding receptor. Plexin-A1 forms a receptor complex with vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 2 in the conotruncal segment or with Off-track in the ventricle segment; these complexes are responsible for the effects of Sema6D on the respective regions. Thus, the differential association of Plexin-A1 with additional receptor components entitles Sema6D to exert distinct biological activities at adjacent regions. This is crucial for complex cardiac morphogenesis.[Keywords: Semaphorin; Plexin; cardiac development] Supplemental material is available at http://www.genesdev.org.

Semaphorins and their receptors have diverse functions in axon guidance, organogenesis, vascularization and/or angiogenesis, oncogenesis and regulation of immune responses. The primary receptors for semaphorins are members of the plexin family. In particular, plexin-A1, together with ligand-binding neuropilins, transduces repulsive axon guidance signals for soluble class III semaphorins, whereas plexin-A1 has multiple functions in chick cardiogenesis as a receptor for the transmembrane semaphorin, Sema6D, independent of neuropilins. Additionally, plexin-A1 has been implicated in dendritic cell function in the immune system. However, the role of plexin-A1 in vivo, and the mechanisms underlying its pleiotropic functions, remain unclear. Here, we generated plexin-A1-deficient (plexin-A1(-/-)) mice and identified its important roles, not only in immune responses, but also in bone homeostasis. Furthermore, we show that plexin-A1 associates with the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (Trem-2), linking semaphorin-signalling to the immuno-receptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-bearing adaptor protein, DAP12. These findings reveal an unexpected role for plexin-A1 and present a novel signalling mechanism for exerting the pleiotropic functions of semaphorins.

Semaphorins and their receptor plexins constitute a pleiotropic cell-signalling system that is used in a wide variety of biological processes, and both protein families have been implicated in numerous human diseases. The binding of soluble or membrane-anchored semaphorins to the membrane-distal region of the plexin ectodomain activates plexin's intrinsic GTPase-activating protein (GAP) at the cytoplasmic region, ultimately modulating cellular adhesion behaviour. However, the structural mechanism underlying the receptor activation remains largely unknown. Here we report the crystal structures of the semaphorin 6A (Sema6A) receptor-binding fragment and the plexin A2 (PlxnA2) ligand-binding fragment in both their pre-signalling (that is, before binding) and signalling (after complex formation) states. Before binding, the Sema6A ectodomain was in the expected 'face-to-face' homodimer arrangement, similar to that adopted by Sema3A and Sema4D, whereas PlxnA2 was in an unexpected 'head-on' homodimer arrangement. In contrast, the structure of the Sema6A-PlxnA2 signalling complex revealed a 2:2 heterotetramer in which the two PlxnA2 monomers dissociated from one another and docked onto the top face of the Sema6A homodimer using the same interface as the head-on homodimer, indicating that plexins undergo 'partner exchange'. Cell-based activity measurements using mutant ligands/receptors confirmed that the Sema6A face-to-face dimer arrangement is physiologically relevant and is maintained throughout signalling events. Thus, homodimer-to-heterodimer transitions of cell-surface plexin that result in a specific orientation of its molecular axis relative to the membrane may constitute the structural mechanism by which the ligand-binding 'signal' is transmitted to the cytoplasmic region, inducing GAP domain rearrangements and activation.

Sema3A, a prototypical semaphorin, acts as a chemorepellent or a chemoattractant for axons by activating a receptor complex comprising neuropilin-1 as the ligand-binding subunit and plexin-A1 as the signal-transducing subunit. How the signals downstream of plexin-A1 are triggered upon Sema3A stimulation, however, is unknown. Here we show that, in the presence of neuropilin-1, the FERM domain-containing guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) FARP2 associates directly with plexin-A1. Sema3A binding to neuropilin-1 induces the dissociation of FARP2 from plexin-A1, resulting in activation of FARP2's Rac GEF activity, Rnd1 recruitment to plexin-A1, and downregulation of R-Ras. Simultaneously, the FERM domain of FARP2 sequesters phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase type I isoform PIPKIgamma661 from talin, thereby inhibiting its kinase activity. These activities are required for Sema3A-mediated repulsion of outgrowing axons and suppression of neuronal adhesion. We therefore conclude that FARP2 is a key molecule involved in the response of neuronal growth cones to class-3 semaphorins.

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The class IV semaphorin Sema4A provides a costimulatory signal to T cells. To investigate the possible developmental and regulatory roles of Sema4A in vivo, we generated Sema4A-deficient mice. Although Sema4A-deficient mice develop normally, DCs and T cells from knockout mice display poor allostimulatory activities and T helper cell (Th) differentiation, respectively. Interestingly, in addition to its expression on DCs, Sema4A is upregulated on Th1-differentiating cells, and it is necessary for in vitro Th1 differentiation and T-bet expression. Consequently, in vivo antigen-specific T cell priming and antibody responses against T cell-dependent antigens are impaired in the mutant mice. Additionally, Sema4A-deficient mice exhibit defective Th1 responses. Furthermore, reconstitution studies with antigen-pulsed DCs reveal that DC-derived Sema4A is important for T cell priming, while T cell-derived Sema4A is involved in developing Th1 responses. Collectively, these results indicate a nonredundant role of Sema4A not only in T cell priming, but also in the regulation of Th1/Th2 responses.

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