Context: Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. [Myrtaceae]) essential oil (CEO) has been shown to possess antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. However, few studies have focused on its topical use.Objective: We investigated the biological activity of a commercially available CEO in a human skin disease model.Materials and methods: We evaluated the effect of CEO on 17 protein biomarkers that play critical roles in inflammation and tissue remodelling in a validated human dermal fibroblast system, which was designed to model chronic inflammation and fibrosis. Four concentrations of CEO (0.011, 0.0037, 0.0012, and 0.00041%, v/v) were studied. The effect of 0.011% CEO on genome-wide gene expression was also evaluated.Results and discussion: CEO at a concentration of 0.011% showed robust antiproliferative effects on human dermal fibroblasts. It significantly inhibited the increased production of several proinflammatory biomarkers such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), interferon γ-induced protein 10 (IP-10), interferon-inducible T-cell α chemoattractant (I-TAC), and monokine induced by γ interferon (MIG). CEO also significantly inhibited tissue remodelling protein molecules, namely, collagen-I, collagen-III, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2). Furthermore, it significantly modulated global gene expression and altered signalling pathways critical for inflammation, tissue remodelling, and cancer signalling processes. CEO significantly inhibited VCAM-1 and collagen III at both protein and gene expression levels.Conclusions: This study provides important evidence of CEO-induced anti-inflammatory and tissue remodelling activity in human dermal fibroblasts. This study also supports the anticancer properties of CEO and its major active component eugenol.

Phenolic compounds are known to have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. These properties may be useful in the preservation of foods or beverages. The interactive antioxidant capacity of phenolic compounds within foods has not been well explored. Interactions of individual phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acid, hesperidin, luteolin, myricetin, naringenin, p-coumaric acid, and quercetin) at the concentrations found in navel oranges (Citrus sinensis) were analyzed for their antioxidant capacity to observe potential antagonistic, additive, or synergistic interactions. Mixtures of 2, 3, and 4 phenolic compounds were prepared. The Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) assay was used to quantify the antioxidant capacities of these combinations. Three different combinations of 2 compounds and 5 combinations of 3 compounds were found to be synergistic. One antagonistic combination of 2 was also found. No additional synergism occurred with the addition of a 4th compound. A model was developed to explain our results. Reduction potentials, relative concentration, and the presence or absence of catechol (o-dihydroxy benzene) groups were factors in the model. Practical Application: Understanding how combinations of fruit antioxidants work together will support their future use in preservation of foods and/or beverages.

Grapes and raisins provide phenolic antioxidants, which contribute to their potential health benefits. The objectives of this study were to compare the antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of green Thompson seedless grapes (the most common variety of grapes consumed in the United States), sun-dried raisins, and golden raisins (both produced from Thompson seedless grapes) and to observe the effects of their consumption over 4 weeks in 15 healthy human males with a cross-over design. The oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) (positive statistical significance for grapes after 2 weeks and golden raisins after 3 weeks), serum oxidation (positive statistical significance for golden raisin lag time after 4 weeks), total phenolics (no significant effects), and C-reactive protein (no significant effects) were monitored. Immediately postconsumption, there were some significant nonpositive changes. It is hypothesized that these negative results may be explained by postprandial oxidation, a known effect after carbohydrate consumption. Golden raisins had the highest antioxidant capacity and phenolic content. The consumption of a serving of grapes or raisins each day, in addition to a typical diet, may not be sufficient to overcome postprandial oxidation when consumed with other high carbohydrate foods but may have beneficial antioxidant effects over time.

The effect of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) bark essential oil (CBEO) on human skin cells has not been elucidated. Therefore, we investigated the activity of a commercially available CBEO in a validated human dermal fibroblast system, a model of chronic inflammation and fibrosis. We first evaluated the impact of CBEO on 17 protein biomarkers that play critical roles in inflammation and tissue remodeling. The impact of CBEO on genome‐wide gene expression was also evaluated. CBEO showed strong anti‐proliferative effects on skin cells and significantly inhibited the production of several inflammatory biomarkers, including vascular cell adhesion molecule‐1, intercellular cell adhesion molecule‐1, monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1, interferon gamma‐induced protein 10, interferon‐inducible T‐cell alpha chemoattractant, and monokine induced by gamma interferon. In addition, CBEO significantly inhibited the production of several tissue remodeling molecules, including epidermal growth factor receptor, matrix metalloproteinase‐1, and plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1. Macrophage colony‐stimulating factor, which is an immunomodulatory protein molecule, was also significantly inhibited by CBEO. Furthermore, CBEO significantly modulated global gene expression and altered signaling pathways, many of which are important in inflammation, tissue remodeling, and cancer biology. The study shows that CBEO is a promising antiinflammatory agent; however, further research is required to clarify its clinical efficacy. © 2017 The Authors. Phytotherapy Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.