The rational design and engineering of metal-organic framework (MOF) crystals with hollow features has been used for various applications. Here, a top-down strategy is established to construct hollow MOFs via synergistic etching and surface functionalization by using phenolic acid. The macrosized cavities are created inside various types of MOFs without destroying the parent crystalline framework, as evidenced by electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The modifi ed MOFs are simultaneously coated by metal-phenolic fi lms. This coating endows the MOFs with the additional functionality of responding to near infrared irradiation to produce heat for potential photothermal therapy applications.

A series of the N-substituted polyaspartamides possessing repeating aminoethylene units in the side chain was prepared in this study to identify polyplexes with effective endosomal escape and low cytotoxicity. All cationic N-substituted polyaspartamides showed appreciably lower cytotoxicity than that of commercial transfection reagents. Interestingly, a distinctive odd-even effect of the repeating aminoethylene units in the polymer side chain on the efficiencies of endosomal escape and transfection to several cell lines was observed. The polyplexes from the polymers with an even number of repeating aminoethylene units (PA-Es) achieved an order of magnitude higher transfection efficiency, without marked cytotoxicity, than those of the polymers with an odd number of repeating aminoethylene units (PA-Os). This odd-even effect agreed well with the buffering capacity of these polymers as well as their capability to disrupt membrane integrity selectively at endosomal pH, leading to highly effective endosomal escape of the PA-E polyplexes. Furthermore, the formation of a polyvalent charged array with precise spacing between protonated amino groups in the polymer side chain was shown to be essential for effective disruption of the endosomal membrane, thus facilitating transport of the polyplex into the cytoplasm. These data provide useful knowledge for designing polycations to construct safe and efficient nonviral gene carriers.

Coordination chemistry of natural polyphenols and transition metals allows rapid self-assembly of conformal coatings on diverse substrates. Herein, we report that this coordination-driven self-assembly process applies to simple phenolic molecules with monotopic or ditopic chelating sites (as opposed to macromolecular, multitopic polyphenols), leading to surface-confined amorphous films upon metal coordination. Films fabricated from gallic acid, pyrogallol, and pyrocatechol, which are the major monomeric building blocks of polyphenols, have been studied in detail. Pyrocatechol, with one vicinal diol group (i.e., bidentate), has been observed to be the limiting case for such assembly. This study expands the toolbox of available phenolic ligands for the formation of surface-confined amorphous films, which may find application in catalysis, energy, optoelectronics, and the biomedical sciences. ■ INTRODUCTIONModular control over the rational design of supramolecular architectures has been achieved in the last two decades by smart engineering of coordination-driven self-assembly processes. 1 Early prediction of the inherent preferences for directionality and binding affinity within the complementary building blocks of coordination complexes has paved the way for fabricating structures with extended networks of metal clusters bridged by compatible organic ligands. 2,3 Porous coordination polymers or metal−organic frameworks (MOFs) with distinct spatial and geometrical arrangements of the interconnecting motifs are examples of such organic−inorganic hybrid materials. 4−7 These crystalline materials with structurally encoded nano-and microporosities have potential application for gas storage, separations, and sensing. 8−13 On the other hand, surface-bound or freestanding amorphous thin films/coatings are another class of network materials of importance in several branches of science, 14−16 where polymeric compounds are commonly used structural components. Research has also focused on exploring novel strategies to incorporate inorganic moieties in polymeric films to obtain functional hybrid materials that exploit the synergistic effects of the organic and inorganic constituents. 17,18 In this context, processes utilizing self-assembly of coordination complexes are a promising strategy toward facile engineering of thin films with defined properties.Recently, we reported a facile assembly approach that exploits metal−polyphenol interactions, specifically between tannic acid (TA) and iron(III) (Fe III ) ions, to form thin films. 19 Our interest in these metal−polyphenol systems arises from the facile and versatile nature of the assembly process, which produces tunable, dynamic materials. Using TA as a ligand, we demonstrated the formation of capsules with engineered pHresponsive degradation, luminescence, and positron emission, by judicious choice of the incorporated metal, 20 as well as pHresponsive drug delivery vectors 21 and cytoprotective coatings. 22 Furthermore, we reported the assembly of Fe IIIpolyphenol capsules fro...

Metal-phenolic coordination chemistry provides a simple and rapid way to fabricate ultrathin films. Here, we report a facile strategy for the preparation of low-fouling and pH-degradable metal-phenolic network (MPN) capsules using a synthetic polyphenol derivative, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polyphenol, as a building block. PEG-MPN capsules exhibit reduced nonspecific protein adsorption and cell association compared with tannic acid (TA)-MPN capsules. In addition, they show faster disassembly at a biologically relevant pH (5) than TA-MPN capsules (80% in 5 h vs 30% in 10 days). PEG-MPN capsules combine both the low fouling properties of PEG and the advantages of the MPN-driven assembly process (e.g., fast assembly and pH-degradability).

The use of natural compounds for preparing hybrid molecular films-such as surface coatings made from metal-phenolic networks (MPNs)-is of interest in areas ranging from catalysis and separations to biomedicine. However, to date, the film growth of MPNs has been observed to proceed in discrete steps (≈10 nm per step) where the coordination-driven interfacial assembly ceases beyond a finite time (≈1 min). Here, it is demonstrated that the assembly process for MPNs can be modulated from discrete to continuous by utilizing solid-state reactants (i.e., rusted iron objects). Gallic acid etches iron from rust and produces chelate complexes in solution that continuously assemble at the interface of solid substrates dispersed in the system. The result is stable, continuous growth of MPN films. The presented double dynamic process-that is, etching and self-assembly-provides new insights into the chemistry of MPN assembly while enabling control over the MPN film thickness by simply varying the reaction time.

Materials assembled by coordination interactions between naturally abundant polyphenols and metals are of interest for a wide range of applications, including crystallization, catalysis, and drug delivery. Such an interest has led to the development of thin films with tunable, dynamic properties, however, creating bulk materials remains a challenge. Reported here is a class of metallogels formed by direct gelation between inexpensive, naturally abundant tannic acid and group(IV) metal ions. The metallogels exhibit diverse properties, including self-healing and transparency, and can be doped with various materials by in situ co-gelation. The robustness and flexibility, combined with the ease, low cost, and scalability of the coordination-driven assembly process make these metallogels potential candidates for chemical, biomedical, and environmental applications.

We engineered metal-phenolic capsules with both high targeting and low nonspecific cell binding properties. The capsules were prepared by coating phenolic-functionalized hyaluronic acid (HA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on calcium carbonate templates, followed by cross-linking the phenolic groups with metal ions and removing the templates. The incorporation of HA significantly enhanced binding and association with a CD44 overexpressing (CD44+) cancer cell line, while the incorporation of PEG reduced nonspecific interactions with a CD44 minimal-expressing (CD44-) cell line. Moreover, high specific targeting to CD44+ cells can be balanced with low nonspecific binding to CD44- cells simply by using an optimized feed-ratio of HA and PEG to vary the content of HA and PEG incorporated into the capsules. Loading an anticancer drug (i.e., doxorubicin) into the obtained capsules resulted in significantly higher cytotoxicity to CD44+ cells but lower cytotoxicity to CD44- cells.

Fine-tuning of chemical structures of polycation-based carriers (polyplexes) is an attractive strategy for safe and efficient mRNA transfaction. Here, mRNA polyplexes comprising N-substituted polyaspartamides with varied numbers of side chain aminoethylene repeats were constructed, and their transfection ability against human hepatoma cells was examined. Transfection efficacy clearly correlated with the number of aminoethylene repeats: polyplexes with odd number repeats (PA-Os) produced sustained increases in mRNA expression compared with those with even number repeats (PA-Es). This predominant efficacy of PA-Os over PA-Es was contradictory to our previous findings for pDNA polyplexes prepared from the same N-substituted polyaspartamides, that is, PA-Es revealed superior transfection efficacy of pDNA than PA-Os. Intracellular FRET analysis using flow cytometry and polyplex tracking under confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that overall transfection efficacy was determined through the balance between endosomal escaping capability and stability of translocated mRNA in cytoplasm. PA-Es efficiently transported mRNA into the cytoplasm. However, their poor cytoplasmic stability led to facile degradation of mRNA, resulting in a less durable pattern of transfection. Alternatively, PA-Os with limited capability of endosomal escape eventually protect mRNA in the cytoplasm to induce sustainable mRNA expression. Higher cytoplasmic stability of pDNA compared to mRNA may shift the limiting step in transfection from cytoplasmic stability to endosomal escape capacity, thereby giving an opposite odd-even effect in transfection efficacy. Endosomal escaping capability and nuclease stability of polyplexes are correlated with the modulated protonation behavior in aminoethylene repeats responding to pH, appealing the substantial importance of chemistry to design polycation structures for promoted mRNA transfection.