In the process of decomposition of a human body, 0.4-0.6 litres of leachate is produced per 1 kg of body weight. The leachate contains pathogenic bacteria and viruses that may contaminate the groundwater and cause disease when it is used for drinking. So far, this topic has been investigated in several regions of the world (mainly Brazil, Australia, the Republic of South Africa, Portugal, the United Kingdom and Poland). However, recently more and more attention has been focused on this issue. This study reviews the results of investigations related to the impact of cemeteries on groundwater bacteriology and virology. This topic was mainly discussed in the context of the quantities and qualities of changes in types of microorganisms causing groundwater contamination. In some cases, these changes were related to the environmental setting of a place, where a cemetery was located. The review is completed by a list of recommendations. Their implementation aims to protect the local environment, employees of funeral homes and the residents living in the vicinity of cemeteries. In this form, this review aims to familiarize the reader with the results of this topic, and provide practical guidance for decision-makers in the context of expansion and management of cemeteries, as well as the location of new ones.
Short-duration extreme rainfall and flash floods are the major natural hazards in small Carpathian catchments. Quantifying forcing rainfall, hydrological responses and geomorphological impacts is the key to mitigating the negative impacts of flash floods. This article focuses on the hydrometeorological aspects of a flood event, the geomorphological changes of hillslopes and the river valley, in the Kasiniczanka catchment-48 km 2 (Outer Carpathians, Poland). Results revealed that the flood in 2014 was generated by 6-h rainstorm with a total of 95.2 mm, and the mean intensity ranging from 7.1 to 31.3 mm h -1 . The flood peak ranged from 60 to 171 m 3 s -1 , and it was approximately two times higher than an 0.1% flood. The unit peak flow ranged between 3.6 and 4.6 m 3 s -1 km -2 , and the K index (which is non-dimensional measure and allows the comparison of flood magnitudes in catchments of differing size), ranged from 3.9 to 4.1. These two measures revealed that this flood was among the worst, recorded in catchments ranging from 13 to 48 km 2 in the Carpathians as a whole. The most significant geomorphological changes were observed in unmanaged channel reaches (the upper and middle parts of the catchment), contrary to lower part, where the river channel was protected by a hydrotechnical infrastructure. Flood analysis enabled the evaluation of the flood risk management process, related to flash floods in small catchments. In this context, some proposals to reduce flood risk level are presented and discussed.
A surface drainage system (SDS) controls catchment hydrology and acts as an indicator of geomorphologic processes. In this study, a field-based and GIS-integrated approach enabling reconstruction of a surface drainage system, which operates during heavy rainfall in small flysch catchments, has been proposed. The reconstruction is based on the ALS-LIDAR data. The reconstruction of the SDS gave the opportunity for analysis of the changes between the river system and the SDS operating during heavy rainfalls. Results have revealed that the SDS operating during heavy rainfalls is several times better developed than the river system. The density has increased from c.a. 1.5 to 13.7 km·km − 2 . Moreover, the structure of the SDS has changed, what was confirmed by the parameters of the Hortonian type of the analyses. The most significant changes were related to the first-and second-order streams. These streams were, the most frequently, the man-origin incisions and natural-origin incisions/concavities on the hillslopes conditioned by micro-relief. The man-origin sub-system reached up to 35% of the SDS functioning during heavy rainfalls, whereas the sub-system composed of incisions/concavities conditioned by micro-relief reached up to 24% of this SDS. Smaller lateral valleys included to the SDS during heavy rainfalls constitute up to 37% of the SDS. The permanent streams constitute the remaining part of the SDS. Changes in the SDS have the influence on the drainage pattern, hydrological response of a catchment, and intensity of geomorphological processes; therefore, the changes in the SDS and their consequences have been discussed.
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