No abstract

Forty-two below-average readers, between 7 and 10 years of age, were given single-word training, phrase training, or no training. Trained children learned to decode target words quickly and accurately, using flashcards; untrained children only discussed the target words and read them once. Trained and untrained children read aloud passages containing target words and were tested on their comprehension. Trained children had better comprehension than did the untrained children when questioned about passages and asked to retell them. Results suggest that an emphasis on rapid word recognition benefits poor readers. Reading is a multicomponent skill whereby the reader has to use a number of different cognitive processes involving word recognition, access of word meanings, parsing of sentences, semantic analysis of sentences, and interpretation of the overall text. Many of these linguistic processes are already automatic in that they demand little or no cognitive effort for the native speaker, inasmuch as they are part of general language comprehension. One process that is not automatic, and that has to be taught to beginning readers, is word recognition. This skill takes several years to learn, and even then most pupils will not have the speed and fluency of skilled adult readers (Gough & Hiilinger, 1980). The automatization of word recognition usually comes after a long period of extensive reading practice. In designing the present study, we reasoned that a focus on the development of automatic word recognition skills would be most likely to have a positive effect on poor readers' comprehension, as word recognition is one aspect of the reading process that is very difficult for them (

Topical 10 percent metronidazole significantly reduces posthemorrhoidectomy discomfort at days 7 and 14 postoperatively. Postoperative edema is reduced and overall healing is improved, compared with that of carrier controls.

The present study replicated the classic Goodman (1965) study, which found that children's reading accuracy improved 60%-80% in context, in comparison with a list. In the 1st experiment, 100 children read words in context, then in lists. In the 2nd experiment, 97 children read words in lists, then in context (the testing order used in the classic study). The results showed that the poor readers and the 6-and 7-year old average readers showed statistically reliable context gains in both experiments. However, the 6-year-old good readers and the 8-year-old average readers only gained reliably with context in the 2nd experiment. The 7-year-old good readers did not gain reliably with context in either experiment. The 8-year-old good readers made no reliable context gains in the 2nd experiment but gained reliably with the list in the 1st experiment. It was concluded that the classic study gave an overly optimistic impression of the benefits of context, especially with regard to good readers.

CRISPR-Cas systems provide bacteria and archaea with adaptive immunity against invading genetic elements, such as plasmids, bacteriophages and archaeal viruses. They consist of cas genes and CRISPR loci, which store genetic memories of previously encountered invaders as short sequences termed spacers. Spacers determine the specificity of CRISPR-Cas defence and immunity can be gained or updated by the addition of new spacers into CRISPR loci. There are two main routes to spacer acquisition, which are known as naïve and primed CRISPR adaptation. Naïve CRISPR adaptation involves the de novo formation of immunity, independent of pre-existing spacers. In contrast, primed CRISPR adaptation (priming) uses existing spacers to enhance the acquisition of new spacers. Priming typically results in spacer acquisition from locations near the site of target recognition by the existing (priming) spacer. Primed CRISPR adaptation has been observed in several type I CRISPR-Cas systems and it is potentially widespread. However, experimental evidence is unavailable for some subtypes, and for most systems, priming has only been shown in a small number of hosts. There is also no current evidence of priming by other CRISPR-Cas types. Here, we used a bioinformatic approach to search for evidence of priming in diverse CRISPR-Cas systems. By analysing the clustering of spacers acquired from phages, prophages and archaeal viruses, including strand and directional biases between subsequently acquired spacers, we demonstrate that two patterns of primed CRISPR adaptation dominate in type I systems. In addition, we find evidence of a priming-like pathway in type II CRISPR-Cas systems.