Wood packaging material (WPM) is a major pathway for international movement of bark- and wood-infesting insects. ISPM 15, the first international standard for treating WPM, was adopted in 2002 and first implemented in the United States in 2006. ISPM 15 allows bark to remain on WPM after treatment, raising concerns that insects could infest after treatment, especially if bark were present. We conducted field studies to evaluate insect infestation of green logs and lumber with varying amounts of bark after heat treatment. In a log study, Cerambycidae and Scolytinae (ambrosia beetles and bark beetles) readily infested and developed in logs with bark after heat treatment. In a lumber study, Cerambycidae and bark beetles laid eggs in all sizes of bark patches tested (approximately 25, 100, 250, and 1,000 cm2) after heat treatment but did not infest control or heat-treated lumber without bark. Cerambycidae completed development only in boards with bark patches of 1,000 cm2, whereas bark beetles completed development on patches of 100, 250, and 1,000 cm2. Survival of bark beetles was greater in square patches (10 by 10 cm) versus rectangular patches (2.5 by 40 cm) of the same surface area (100 cm2). In surveys at six U.S. ports in 2006, 9.4% of 5,945 ISPM 15-marked WPM items contained bark, and 1.2% of 564 ISPM 15-marked WPM items with bark contained live insects of quarantine significance under the bark. It was not possible to determine whether the presence of live insects represented treatment failure or infestation after treatment.
Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is one of the most serious nonnative invasive forest insects discovered in North America in recent years. A. glabripennis is regulated by federal quarantines in the United States and Canada and is the subject of eradication programs that involve locating, cutting, and chipping all infested trees. Other control methods are needed to aid in eradication and to form an integrated management program in the event eradication fails. We conducted laboratory bioassays to determine the toxicity of two systemic insecticides, azadirachtin and imidacloprid, for potential control of A. glabripennis and the cottonwood borer, Plectrodera scalator (F.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a closely related native cerambycid. Larvae of both cerambycid species were fed artificial diet with dilutions of azadirachtin or imidacloprid for 14 wk. Both insecticides exhibited strong antifeedant effects and some toxicity against A. glabripennis and P. scalator larvae. For A. glabripennis, the highest larval mortality at the end of the bioassay was 60% for larvae fed artificial diet treated with azadirachtin (50 ppm) or imidacloprid (1.6 ppm). For P. scalator, the highest larval mortality at the end of the bioassay was 100% for larvae fed artificial diet treated with azadirachtin (50 ppm) or imidacloprid (160 ppm). At 14 wk, the LC50 values for P. scalator were 1.58 and 1.78 ppm for azadirachtin and imidacloprid, respectively. Larvae of both species gained weight when fed diet treated with formulation blanks (inert ingredients) or the water control but lost weight when fed diet treated with increasing concentrations of either azadirachtin or imidacloprid. In a separate experiment, A. glabripennis adults were fed maple twigs treated with high and low concentrations of imidacloprid. A. glabripennis adult mortality reached 100% after 13 d on twigs treated with 150 ppm imidacloprid and after 20 d on twigs treated with 15 ppm imidacloprid. There was no visible feeding by A. glabripennis adults on twigs treated at the higher imidacloprid rate, and feeding was significantly reduced for adults placed on twigs treated at the low imidacloprid rate compared with adults on untreated twigs. In summary, imidacloprid and azadirachtin had both antifeedant and toxic effects against A. glabripennis and P. scalator and have potential for use in management programs. Based on our results, the delivery of high and sustained insecticide concentrations will be needed to overcome the antifeedant effects and lengthy lethal time for both larvae and adults exposed to these insecticides.
Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a pest native to China and Korea, was discovered in North America in 1996. Currently, the only reliable strategy available for eradication and control is to cut and chip all infested trees. We evaluated various doses of the systemic insecticides azadirachtin, emamectin benzoate, imidacloprid, and thiacloprid for control of A. glabripennis in naturally infested elms (Ulmus spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), and willows (Salix spp. ) in China between 2000 and 2002. Significantly more dead A. glabripennis adults were found beneath elm and poplar trees treated with imidacloprid (in 2000 and 2001) or thiacloprid (in 2001) and beneath willow trees injected with imidacloprid or thiacloprid (in 2002) compared with control trees. In 2000, 4 mo after injection, the density of live A. glabripennis was significantly reduced in poplar trees treated with imidacloprid (90%) and in willow trees treated with imidacloprid (83%) or emamectin benzoate (71%) compared with controls. In 2001, 9 mo after injection, the density of live A. glabripennis was significantly reduced in poplar (76%) and willow (45%) trees treated with imidacloprid compared with control trees. Similarly, percentage mortality of all life stages of A. glabripennis feeding within trees was significantly higher on poplar trees 4 mo after injection with imidacloprid (64%) in 2000 and on elms (55%) and poplars (63%) 9 mo after injection with imidacloprid in 2001 compared with control trees. Imidacloprid residue levels in leaves and twigs collected at various times from 1 d to 9 mo after injection ranged from 0.27 to 0.46 ppm. Injecting A. glabripennis-infested trees with imidacloprid can result in significant mortality of adults during maturation feeding on leaves and twigs and of all life stages feeding within infested trees. Imidacloprid is translocated rapidly in infested trees and is persistent at lethal levels for several months. Although, injection with imidacloprid does not provide complete control of A. glabripennis, systemic insecticides may prove useful as part of an integrated eradication or management program.
The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, is the most damaging invasive forest insect pest ever to have invaded North America. It is native to Asia and is established in the United States, Canada, European Russia and Ukraine where it threatens native ash across North America and Europe. We evaluated trap designs, colors, and lures for A. planipennis detection at sites with varying infestation levels. Purple or green sticky prism traps and multiple funnel traps hung in the canopy of ash trees and double-decker traps (consisting of two sticky prisms attached to a 3m vertical pole at 3m and 1.8m above ground) had high detection rates even at sites with very low infestation levels. At a low infestation site, females were more attracted to dark purple sticky prism traps hung in the canopy and to Manuka oil and Phoebe oil lures than to light green sticky prism traps or cis-3-hexenol lures; whereas, males were more attracted to light green sticky prism traps in the canopy and cis-3-hexenol lures than to dark purple sticky prism traps or Manuka and Phoebe oil lures. More males and females were captured in double-decker traps with dark green upper prisms and light purple lower prisms, baited with cis-3-hexenol, than in double-decker traps with dark purple upper and lower prisms. Dark green funnel traps and double-decker traps with dark green upper and light purple lower prisms baited with cis-3-hexenol lures captured more females than dark green sticky prism traps hung in the canopy at sites with very low infestation levels. Detection rates were similar among trap types and ranged from 75 to 80% for dark green sticky prism traps, 82.5-100% for dark green funnel traps, and 100% for double-decker traps with dark green upper and light purple lower prisms at sites with very low A. planipennis infestations. Cost, ability to reuse the traps, and ease of deployment varies among trap types. These and other factors including trap placement, host density and condition should be considered in selecting traps and designing operational surveys. Future research is needed to determine effective trapping radius, relationship of trap catches to population density, cost benefit of different trap types, and optimal deployment strategy. Greater numbers of A. planipennis captured and higher detection rates in cis-3-hexenol-baited double-decker traps with dark green upper prisms and light purple lower prisms and in dark green funnel traps compared to dark green prism traps at sites with very low infestation levels, suggest these trap types would be most effective for operational detection surveys.
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