Recent and historical austral summer and winter rainfall characteristics have been widely investigated across southern Africa. However, a notable gap of knowledge remains for the Namibian region. This article presents the first extensive 19th century (1845–1900) hydro‐climate history for central Namibia, derived from documentary evidence. Unpublished and published data sources were scrutinized in various archives and libraries in Germany, Switzerland, Namibia and South Africa. Missionary Carl Hahn's detailed diaries are the most valuable source of information for the earliest period until 1859. Other important sources of information include the Rhenish Missionary Society (RMS) annual reports and monthly ‘Berichte’ (news), station chronicles, official annual reports for the colonial period (1894 onwards) and letters/diaries by traders, travellers, etc. Climate information was transcribed, translated and organized chronologically. Using a five‐point categorization system ranging from very wet (+2) to very dry (−2), each year was classified according to overall rainfall conditions during the rain season. A portion of the chronology is compared with instrumental rainfall data for Okahandja, Windhoek and Rehoboth and confirms good agreement. Possible associations between El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phases and subsequent austral summer rainfall conditions are explored for central Namibia. Wetter years (42%) are over‐represented in comparison to dry years (38%) during the second half of the 19th century in central Namibia, with a high percentage (42%) constituting either extremely wet or extremely dry years. Inter‐annual rainfall variability between 1845 and 1900 seems more pronounced than elsewhere in southern Africa during this period. Extreme to very strong and prolonged El Niño (e.g. 1876–1878) and La Nina (e.g. 1865–1866) phases account for rare hydro‐climatic synchronicity between southern African sub‐regions and between continents of the Southern Hemisphere.

Abstract. Limited research has focussed on historical droughts during the pre-instrumental weather-recording period in semi-arid to arid human-inhabited environments. Here we describe the unique nature of droughts over semi-arid central Namibia (southern Africa) between 1850 and 1920. More particularly, our intention is to establish temporal shifts in influence and impact that historical droughts had on society and the environment during this period. This is achieved through scrutinizing documentary records sourced from a variety of archives and libraries. The primary source of information comes from missionary diaries, letters, and reports. These missionaries were based at a variety of stations across the central Namibian region and thus collectively provide insight into subregional (or site-specific) differences in hydrometeorological conditions and drought impacts and responses. The earliest instrumental rainfall records (1891–1913) from several missionary stations or settlements are used to quantify hydrometeorological conditions and compare them with documentary sources. The work demonstrates strong subregional contrasts in drought conditions during some given drought events and the dire implications of failed rain seasons, the consequences of which lasted for many months to several years. The paper argues that human experience and associated reporting of drought events depends strongly on social, environmental, spatial, and societal developmental situations and perspectives. To this end, the reported experiences, impacts, and responses to drought over this 70-year period portray both common and changeable attributes through time.

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