The association of mutant forms of Ras protein with a variety of human cancers has stimulated intense interest in therapies based on inhibiting oncogenic Ras signaling. Attachment of Ras proteins to the plasma membrane is required for effective Ras signaling and is initiated by the enzyme farnesyl protein transferase. We found that in the presence of potent farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors, Ras proteins in the human colon carcinoma cell line DLD-1 were alternatively prenylated by geranylgeranyl transferase-1. When H-Ras, N-Ras, K-Ras4A, and K-Ras4B were expressed individually in COS cells, H-Ras prenylation and membrane association were found to be uniquely sensitive to farnesyl transferase inhibitors; N-and K-Ras proteins incorporated the geranylgeranyl isoprene group and remained associated with the membrane fraction. The alternative prenylation of N-and K-Ras has significant implications for our understanding of the mechanism of action of farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors as anti-cancer chemotherapeutics.Newly synthesized Ras proteins are partitioned to the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane by a series of posttranslational modifications. The first step, catalyzed by the enzyme farnesyl protein transferase, is the addition of the 15-carbon isoprenyl group farnesyl to the sulfhydryl group of cysteine in the Ras carboxyl-terminal CAAX box (where C is cysteine, A is aliphatic, and X is typically Met or Ser) (1-3). Farnesylation is followed by proteolytic removal of the AAX amino acids and methylation of the carboxyl group of the farnesylated cysteine (4). Ras proteins at the plasma membrane cycle between an active GTP-bound state and an inactive GDPbound state. Mutations that stabilize the active GTP-bound state have been identified in over 30% of human tumors, with particularly high incidences in pancreatic (ϳ90%) and colon (ϳ50%) cancers. Four oncogenic Ras proteins have been described, H-Ras, N-Ras, K-Ras4A, and K-Ras4B. The majority of mutations associated with human cancer have been found in the K-Ras gene. The two K-Ras proteins are products of a single alternatively spliced transcript, with K-Ras4B the predominant isoform (Ͼ80%) (5, 6).Ras proteins that have been genetically modified so that they lack the isoprenylated cysteine do not associate with the plasma membrane and cannot transform fibroblasts (7). These genetic experiments provided the basis for the development of farnesyl transferase inhibitors (FTIs) 1 as anti-cancer agents. A number of reports have demonstrated that pharmacological inhibition of farnesyl protein transferase by CAAX analogs reduces anchorage-independent growth of Ras-transformed cells in soft agar (8) and slows growth of Ras-transformed cells in nude mice (9, 10). The FTIs appear relatively non-toxic in that they do not interfere with normal cell proliferation (11). This result was somewhat surprising because Ras function was shown to be necessary for normal growth factor signaling and cell proliferation (12). A mechanism through which cells may proliferate in...

Survivin is an inhibitor of apoptosis protein, which is over-expressed in most tumors. Aberrant expression of survivin and loss of wild-type p53 in many tumors prompted us to investigate a possible link between these two events. Here we show that wild-type p53 represses survivin expression at both mRNA and protein levels. Transient transfection analyses revealed that the expression of wild-type p53, but not mutant p53, was associated with strong repression of the survivin promoter in various cell types. The over-expression of exogenous survivin protein rescues cells from p53-induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that loss of survivin mediates, at least, in part the p53-dependent apoptotic pathway. In spite of the presence of two putative p53-binding sites in the survivin promoter, deletion and mutation analyses suggested that neither site is required for transcriptional repression of survivin expression. This was con®rmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. Further analyses suggested that the modi®cation of chromatin within the survivin promoter could be a molecular explanation for silencing of survivin gene transcription by p53.

The temporal gene expression profile during the entire process of apoptosis and cell cycle progression in response to p53 in human ovarian cancer cells was explored with cDNA microarrays representing 33 615 individual human genes. A total of 1501 genes (4.4%) were found to respond to p53 (approximately 80% of these were repressed by p53) using 2.5-fold change as a cutoff. It was anticipated that most of p53 responsive genes resulted from the secondary effect of p53 expression at late stage of apoptosis. To delineate potential p53 direct and indirect target genes during the process of apoptosis and cell cycle progression, microarray data were combined with global p53 DNA-binding site analysis. Here we showed that 361 out of 1501 p53 responsive genes contained p53 consensus DNA-binding sequence(s) in their regulatory region, approximately 80% of which were repressed by p53. This is the first time that a large number of p53-repressed genes have been identified to contain p53 consensus DNAbinding sequence(s) in their regulatory region. Hierarchical cluster analysis of these genes revealed distinct temporal expression patterns of transcriptional activation and repression by p53. More genes were activated at early time points, while more repressed genes were found after the onset of apoptosis. A small-scale quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis indicated that in vivo p53-DNA interaction was detected in eight out of 10 genes, most of which were repressed by p53 at the early onset of apoptosis, suggesting that a portion of p53 target genes in the human genome could be negatively regulated by p53 via sequence-specific DNA binding. The approaches and genes described here should aid the understanding of global gene regulatory network of p53.

The activity of the catalytic domain of the orphan MAP kinase ERK5 is increased by Ras but not Raf-1 in cells, which suggests that ERK5 might mediate Raf-independent signaling by Ras. We found that Raf-1 does contribute to Ras activation of ERK5 but in a manner that does not correlate with Raf-1 catalytic activity. A clue to the mechanism of action of Raf-1 on ERK5 comes from the observation that endogenous Raf-1 binds to endogenous ERK5, suggesting the involvement of regulatory protein-protein interactions. This interaction is specific because Raf-1 binds only to ERK5 and not ERK2 or SAPK. Finally, we demonstrate the ERK5/MEK5 pathway is required for Raf-dependent cellular transformation and that a constitutively active form of MEK5, MEK5DD, synergizes with Raf to transform NIH 3T3 cells. These observations suggest that ERK5 plays a large role in Raf-1-mediated signal transduction.We have recently demonstrated that Ras contributes to activation of the newly discovered MAP 1 kinase family member, ERK5 (1). However, unlike ERK1 and ERK2, ERK5 is not detectably stimulated by Raf-1 or its activated mutants. These findings initially suggested that Ras activates ERK5 by a Rafindependent mechanism. Many studies imply that Ras function is mediated by a convergence of Raf-dependent and Raf-independent signaling events (2, 3). The observation that the activity of the ERK5 catalytic domain is increased by Ras but not Raf-1 raises the possibility that ERK5 might contribute to Raf-independent signaling by Ras.To address the possibility that ERK5 is regulated by a Rafindependent Ras effector pathway, we tested the capacities of a panel of Ras effector domain mutations to activate the catalytic domain of ERK5. These mutations uncouple the association of Ras with its multiple downstream partners (3). We found that all Ras effector domain mutants were defective in activating ERK5. We were surprised to find that Raf-1 complemented all of the mutants, including those that do not bind or activate Raf-1. The ability of Raf-1 to restore activation of the ERK5 catalytic domain by the Ras effector domain mutants did not correlate with the ability of Raf-1 to activate the ERK1,2 MAP kinase cascade. This finding suggests that Raf-1 and Ras coordinate to regulate ERK5 by a mechanism distinct from that of Raf-1 in ERK1,2 activation. To test for a possible role of complex formation between ERK5 and Raf-1, we examined their interactions in vitro and in intact cells. Not only do recombinant ERK5 and Raf-1 bind in vitro, endogenous ERK5 and Raf-1 associate as detected by co-immunoprecipitation. An important role for coordinated ERK5 regulation is suggested by our observation that dominant negative mutants of both ERK5 and its upstream regulator MEK5 inhibit Raf-dependent cellular transformation. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESMammalian Cell Culture and Transfection-293 cells were cultured, transfected, and harvested as described previously (1). Focus formation assays in NIH 3T3 cells were performed as described previously (8). Expression of HA-ERK5ki...

We report on a novel chimeric gene that confers kanamycin resistance on tobacco plastids. The kan gene from the bacterial transposon Tn5, encoding neomycin phosphotransferase (NPTII), was placed under control of plastid expression signals and cloned between rbcL and ORF512 plastid gene sequences to target the insertion of the chimeric gene into the plastid genome. Transforming plasmid pTNH32 DNA was introduced into tobacco leaves by the biolistic procedure, and plastid transformants were selected by their resistance to 50 micrograms/ml of kanamycin monosulfate. The regenerated plants uniformly transmitted the transplastome to the maternal progeny. Resistant clones resulting from incorporation of the chimeric gene into the nuclear genome were also obtained. However, most of these could be eliminated by screening for resistance to high levels of kanamycin (500 micrograms/ml). Incorporation of kan into the plastid genome led to its amplification to a high copy number, about 10,000 per leaf cell, and accumulation of NPTII to about 1% of total cellular protein.

In this study we used adenovirus vector-mediated transduction of either the p53 gene (rAd-p53) or the p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 gene (rAd-p21) to mimic both p53-dependent and -independent up-regulation of p21 WAF1⁄CIP1within a human ovarian cancer cell line, 2774, and the derivative cell lines, 2774qw1 and 2774qw2. We observed that rAd-p53 can induce apoptosis in both 2774 and 2774qw1 cells but not in 2774qw2 cells. Surprisingly, overexpression of p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 also triggered apoptosis within these two cell lines. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR analysis revealed that the differential expression of BAX, BCL2, and caspase 3 genes, specific in rAd-p53-induced apoptotic cells, was not altered in rAd-p21-induced apoptotic cells, suggesting p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 -induced apoptosis through a pathway distinguishable from p53-induced apoptosis. Expression analysis of 2774qw1 cells infected with rAd-p21 on 60,000 cDNA microarrays identified 159 genes in response to p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 expression in at least one time point with 2.5-fold change as a cutoff. Integration of the data with the parallel microarray experiments with rAd-p53 infection allowed us to extract 66 genes downstream of both p53 and p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 and 93 genes in response to p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 expression in a p53-independent pathway. The genes in the former set may play a dual role in both p53-dependent and p53-independent pathways, and the genes in the latter set gave a mechanistic molecular explanation for p53-independent p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 -induced apoptosis. Furthermore, promoter sequence analysis suggested that transcription factor E2F family is partially responsible for the differential expression of genes following p21WAF1⁄CIP1 . This study has profound significance toward understanding the role of p21 WAF1⁄CIP1 in p53-independent apoptosis.