a b s t r a c tSeveral studies have demonstrated that the human motor cortex is activated by the mere observation of actions performed by others. In the present study, we explored whether the perception of 'impoverished motion stimuli', such as shadow animations, is sufficient to activate motor areas. To do so, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied over the hand area of the primary motor cortex (M1) while subjects observed shadow animations depicting finger motions. Data showed that resonant motor responses in M1 were only found when a biological effector was recognized from the observed shadow animation. Interestingly, M1 responses were similar for observing shadow or real motions. Therefore, the loss of 'pictorial' movement features in a shadow animation appeared to have no effect on motor resonance in M1. In summary, these findings suggest that the 'recognition' of biological motion from sparse visual input is both necessary and sufficient to recruit motor areas. This supports the hypothesis that the motor system is involved in recognizing the actions performed by others.

No abstract

Background: Toilet training (TT) is a milestone in a child's development. Nowadays children complete TT later than previous generations. This can have detrimental consequences for the child, the parents and the environment. TT is experienced as difficult and time consuming, parents could benefit from guidelines to assist in this process.Methods: Focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to explore parents' experiences in an inductive approach applying purposive sampling. The FGDs aimed to explore the type of information parents wanted to receive on TT, from whom and how.Results: : After six focus group discussions, including 37 participants with personal experience in toilet training, data saturation was achieved. The findings of this qualitative study show reputable agencies, family, friends, day-care workers and nursery school teachers were considered very helpful and trustworthy sources. TT information should be easy understandable and not containing scientific terms or much text. A colorful and illustrated brochure sent by regular mail is preferred.Conclusion: Our study allows to develop a source of correct and wanted information about TT that parents can and want to use, which helps them completing this training more easily and timely.

Background : Chronic functional constipation is a highly prevalent disorder in which, when conservative measures fail to relieve symptoms, surgical interventions are sometimes indicated. In recent years, neuromodulation for the treatment of functional constipation has gained interest but its role and effectiveness are still unclear. The purpose of this review is to provide a systematic overview on the current literature on the different modalities of neurostimulation and their effect on chronic functional constipation in adults as reported in the literature. Methods : A search in the literature for articles concerning the effect of different types of neuromodulation on constipation was performed in PubMed using extensive search terms for the different modalities of neuromodulation. Studies and trials were checked for eligibility. For all types of neuromodulation together, 27 articles were included. Results : 17 studies were included on SNM (sacral nerve modulation). Although multiple studies show positive results on the effect of SNM in constipation, double-blind crossover RCT’s (randomised controlled trials) showed no significant effect. 3 studies were included for tSNS (transcutaneous sacral nerve stimulation), 2 for PTNS (percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation) and 2 for TTNS (transcutaneous tibial nerve stimulation). Studies and trials on these modalities of neuromodulation reported ambiguous results on statistical significance of the effect. For transcutaneous IFC (interferential current therapy) 2 studies were included, which both reported a statistically significant effect on all outcomes. Conclusion : The beneficial effect of neuromodulation in chronic functional constipation remains questionable. However, neuro-modulation might be worth considering in patients refractory to treatment before turning to more invasive measures. Future research should shed more light on the effects of neuromodulation in constipation.