Multiscale wind velocity fluctuation and complex inertial response of sand saltation to wind variations give rise to intermittent and nonuniform sand transport, which greatly challenges the prediction of transport rate under wind conditions around saltation threshold. In this paper, three-dimensional sand saltation within simulation domain of wind tunnel scale is modeled based on large eddy simulation of turbulent wind. Special attention is paid to the prediction of surface shear stress and consequently aerodynamic entrainment. When the wall stress model considering the influence of large-scale turbulent structures was employed in case of relatively small resistance level for calculating particle aerodynamic entrainment, the model results predict sand transport below the impact threshold. The sand transport rate in this regime increases exponentially with mean wall stress, in contrast to the standard power law-like behavior above the impact threshold. Aerodynamic entrainment and strong transport events lag behind high-speed fluids sweep on a large scale even in wind tunnel, but the spatiotemporal variability of small-scale sand transport is still unclear and quite complex due to transport inertia.
Reliable prediction of wind-blown sand movement in the natural environment is of major importance for studies of aeolian landforms and wind erosion control. Sand movement can be roughly divided into four main physical processes: (a) the initiation of surface particles by aerodynamic entrainment, (b) the subsequent trajectories of particles, (c) the splashing and rebounding of particles by impacting processes, and (d) modification of the wind profile by saltating particles (Anderson & Haff, 1991;Bagnold, 1941;Kok & Renno, 2009). Thus, characterization of particle movement in wind-blown sand requires an understanding of several key physical variables, including the impact and lift-off parameters of particles and transport flux
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