This paper explores what lessons we can learn from the experiences of states that instituted NCLB-like accountability systems prior to 2001 (here called first-generation accountability systems). We looked at the experiences of three smaller states (Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina), four larger ones (California, Florida, New York, Texas), and two large districts (Chicago and Philadelphia). We analyzed evaluative reports and policy documents as well as interviews with state officials and researchers. We condensed the material into eight lessons: sanctions are not the fallback solution; no single strategy has been universally successful; staging should be handled with flexibility; intensive capacity building is necessary; a comprehensive set of strategies seems promising; relationship-building needs to complement powerful programs; competence reduces conflict; and strong state commitment is needed to create system capacity.
Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to analyze the district effectiveness literature. It begins by summarizing the school effectiveness research, the correlates of effective schools, and the conceptual and methodological characteristics of this field. It then describes the findings from a review of 50 studies of district effectiveness, the most frequently identified correlates of effective districts, and the conceptual and methodological features of this research. From there, it compares and contrasts the two fields, paying attention to the ways in which they frame notions of success, purposes of education, the contextualized nature of school performance, and theoretical explanations for student success. Design/methodology/approach -Data sources for this literature review included 50 primary documents on district effectiveness. The studies were bound to those that presented the original results from investigations of the relationship between district-level policies, routines, behaviors, or other characteristics and classroom-level outcomes. Findings -Several themes run through the literature on district effectiveness. These include findings that standards-aligned curricula, coherent organizational structures, strong instructional leadership, frequent monitoring and evaluation, and focused professional learning lead to higher test scores. Most of these investigations are framed from technical perspectives that explore the relationship between organizational regulations and improved test performance. Less common are inquiries about the sociopolitical and normative forces that shape districts' improvement experiences. One consequence of this technical focus is that the field of district effectiveness has come to share several of the conceptual and methodological properties that characterized the former school-level research.Research limitations/implications -The article concludes by discussing the implications for the growing volume of district-level research on educational leadership, district improvement, and educational equity. Originality/value -This article details the ways in which a sharp focus on questions of what works in the district effectiveness literature has deepened researchers' and practitioners' knowledge of the specific mechanisms that may produce more desirable results in test performance, yet these questions alone, decoupled from corresponding inquiries about the complex, highly contextualized character of higher or lower scoring districts, leave researchers and practitioners vulnerable to the same scholarly and practical pitfalls of their predecessors.
In search for the practical relevance of accountability systems for school improvement, the authors ask whether practitioners traveling between the worlds of system-designated high-and low-performing schools would detect tangible differences in educational quality and organizational effectiveness. In comparing nine exceptionally high and low performing California middle schools, the authors conclude that if such travelers expected to encounter visible signs of an overall higher quality of students' educational experience at the high-performing schools, they would be disappointed. Rather, they would have to settle on a narrower definition of quality that is more proximate to the effective acquisition of standards-aligned and test-relevant knowledge. High-growth schools tended to generate internal commitment for accountability and consider it an impetus for raising standards.
This qualitative case study extends the literature on urban district instructional policymaking by analyzing the ways in which normative and political pressures shaped district leaders’ instructional policy decisions. Drawing on concepts from the politics of education, it shows how teachers and principals repeatedly nullified policies that aimed for equity-oriented, rigorous changes in one urban district when leaders opted to pacify constituents, rather than uphold controversial policies. It complements present explanations of how district instructional policies come to be by comparing the consistency between the values and ideologies of district leaders, principals, and teachers and those implicit in district policies.
Abstract:In this article, we advance a conceptual framework for the study of Teach For America (TFA) as a political and social movement with implicit and explicit ideological and political underpinnings. We argue that the second branch of TFA's mission statement, which maintains that Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 24 No.12 2 TFA's greatest point of influence in public education is not in classrooms, but in its facilitation of entry into leadership positions aimed at reshaping public schooling, can be better understood in terms of the organization's: a) infusion of "policy entrepreneurs" into educational policymaking processes; b) cultivation of powerful networks of elite interests; c) promotion of "corporate" models of managerial leadership; and, d) racial and social class identities of its corps members that facilitate entry into leadership and policy networks. Our framework is informed by the extant research literature on TFA, interview data from more than 150 alumni and corps members, and our observations of TFA's 20th Anniversary Summit in Washington, D.C., as an illustrative case of TFA's messaging and general orientation toward educational reform. We conclude that this framework can help illuminate under-examined political and ideological motivations behind the organization's activities. Keywords: Teach For America, racial inequality, policy entrepreneurs, educational leadership, urban educational reform, power networks Re-analizando Teach for America: Un marco conceptual para la próxima generación de análisis Resumen: En este artículo, presentamos un marco conceptual para el estudio de Teach For America (TFA) como movimiento político y social con fundamentos ideológicos y políticos implícitos y explícitos. Sostenemos que el segundo punto del documento que presenta la misión de TFA, indicando que el espacio de mayor influencia en la educación pública no son las aulas, sino su rol para facilitar la entrada en posiciones de liderazgo destinados a la re-hacer la escuela pública, se debe entender en términos de a) infusión de "emprendedores políticos" en procesos de política educativa;: de organización b) desarrollo de redes poderosas con intereses elitistas; c) la promoción de modelos "corporativos" de liderazgo gerencial; y, d) identidades de clase raciales y sociales de los miembros de TFA con mejores posibilidades de entrada en redes políticas y de liderazgo. Nuestro marco conceptual es informado por la literatura existente investigación sobre TFA, datos de entrevistas con 150 alumnos, y nuestras observaciones del 20 Aniversario de TFA y reunión Cumbre en Washington, DC, como un caso ilustrativo de los mensajes de TFA y la orientación general hacia la reforma educativa. Llegamos a la conclusión de que este marco conceptual ilumina aspectos poco estudiados de las motivaciones políticas e ideológicas detrás de las actividades de la organización. Palabras clave: Teach For America; desigualdad racial; emprendedores políticos, liderazgo educativo; reforma educativa urbano; redes de poder Reanalisando...
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