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During peripheral nervous system (PNS) myelination, Schwann cells must interpret extracellular cues to sense their environment and regulate their intrinsic developmental program accordingly. The pathways and mechanisms involved in this process are only partially understood. We use tissue-specific conditional gene targeting to show that members of the Rho GTPases, cdc42 and rac1, have different and essential roles in axon sorting by Schwann cells. Our results indicate that although cdc42 is required for normal Schwann cell proliferation, rac1 regulates Schwann cell process extension and stabilization, allowing efficient radial sorting of axon bundles.

During development, Schwann cells (SCs) interpret different extracellular cues to regulate their migration, proliferation, and the remarkable morphological changes associated with the sorting, ensheathment, and myelination of axons. Although interactions between extracellular matrix proteins and integrins are critical to some of these processes, the downstream signaling pathways they control are still poorly understood. Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a focal adhesion protein that associates with multiple binding partners to link integrins to the actin cytoskeleton and is thought to participate in integrin and growth factor–mediated signaling. Using SC-specific gene ablation, we report essential functions for ILK in radial sorting of axon bundles and in remyelination in the peripheral nervous system. Our in vivo and in vitro experiments show that ILK negatively regulates Rho/Rho kinase signaling to promote SC process extension and to initiate radial sorting. ILK also facilitates axon remyelination, likely by promoting the activation of downstream molecules such as AKT/protein kinase B.

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The formation of myelin sheaths in the CNS is the result of a complex series of events involving oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) proliferation, directed migration, and the morphological changes associated with axon ensheathment and myelination. To examine the role of Rho GTPases in oligodendrocyte biology, we have used a conditional tissue-specific gene-targeting approach. Ablation of Cdc42 in cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage did not affect OPC proliferation, directed migration, or in vitro differentiation, but it led to the formation of a unique and stage-specific myelination phenotype. This was characterized by the extraordinary enlargement of the inner tongue of the oligodendrocyte process and concomitant formation of a myelin outfolding as a result of abnormal accumulation of cytoplasm in this region. Ablation of Rac1 also resulted in the abnormal accumulation of cytoplasm in the inner tongue of the oligodendrocyte process, and we provide genetic evidence that rac1 synergizes with cdc42 in a gene dosage-dependent way to regulate myelination.

Previous reports, including transplantation experiments using dominant-negative inhibition of ␤1-integrin signaling in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, suggested that ␤1-integrin signaling is required for myelination. Here, we test this hypothesis using conditional ablation of the ␤1-integrin gene in oligodendroglial cells during the development of the CNS. This approach allowed us to study oligodendroglial ␤1-integrin signaling in the physiological environment of the CNS, circumventing the potential drawbacks of a dominant-negative approach. We found that ␤1-integrin signaling has a much more limited role than previously expected. Although it was involved in stage-specific oligodendrocyte cell survival, ␤1-integrin signaling was not required for axon ensheathment and myelination per se. We also found that, in the spinal cord, remyelination occurred normally in the absence of ␤1-integrin. We conclude that, although ␤1-integrin may still contribute to other aspects of oligodendrocyte biology, it is not essential for myelination and remyelination in the CNS.

This study has evaluated the effects of three industrially relevant multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) on human Jurkat T cells and compared them to those of crocidolite asbestos. No overt acute toxicity was observed for all MWNTs tested although signs of oxidative stress were evident. MWNTs did not activate resting Jurkat cells and only slightly stimulated the release of the cytokine interleukin-2 (IL-2) in activated cells. Similar to MWNTs, crocidolite had little toxic effects on Jurkat cells but neither induced the formation of reactive oxygen species nor changes in IL-2 signaling. These findings suggest that, in contrast to many other cell types, T cells are relatively resistant to stress induced by high-aspect ratio particles.

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