The use of global gene expression profiling, also known as transcriptomics or genomics, provides a means to identify key pathways affected in ageing skin that can be improved with appropriate cosmetic compounds. Aspects of skin ageing that can be addressed include matrix production, barrier, lipid synthesis, antioxidant capacity and hyperpigmentation. Gene expression profiling together with in vitro human skin cell cultures for compound screening and verification have led to the identification of cosmetic compounds and an understanding of the biological effects of compounds such as niacinamide, Pal-KTTKS, hexamidine, retinyl propionate and sodium dehydroacetate. In addition, understanding of the decreased antioxidant capacity of aged skin has led to the identification of new antiageing ingredients, olive-derived fatty acid ethoxylates, which have been shown to restore antioxidant enzymes in skin keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Gene expression profiling of age spots has also provided an understanding of the role of undecylenoyl phenylalanine in reducing melanin production by an adrenergic receptor mechanism in melanocytes. The use of these compounds in cosmetic formulations for skin care can aid improvements in the appearance of aged skin, including the improved appearance of fine lines, wrinkles and age spots.

Objective To evaluate whether niacinamide (Nam) can mitigate production of inflammatory and senescence‐related biomarkers induced by environmental stressors. Methods Human epidermal keratinocytes were exposed to UVB, urban dust, diesel exhaust and cigarette smoke extract and treated with Nam or vehicle control. Full thickness 3‐D skin organotypic models were exposed to a combination of UVB and PM2.5 and treated with Nam or vehicle control. Quantitation of the SASP‐related inflammatory mediators PGE2, IL‐6 and IL‐8 was performed on cultured media. UVB‐exposed keratinocytes treated with and without Nam were immunostained for the senescence biomarker Lamin B1 (LmnB1). Transcriptomics profiling of cigarette smoke extract effects on keratinocytes was performed. A double‐blind, placebo‐controlled clinical was conducted on 40 female panellists that were pretreated on back sites for two weeks with 5% Nam or vehicle and then exposed to 1.5 minimal erythemal dose (MED) solar‐simulated radiation (SSR). Treated sites were compared with non‐treated exposed sites for erythema and the skin surface IL‐1αRA/IL‐1α inflammatory biomarkers. Results Ultraviolet B induced synthesis of PGE2, IL‐8 and IL‐6 and reduced LmnB1 levels in keratinocytes. Urban dust and diesel exhaust only stimulated synthesis of IL‐8 whereas cigarette smoke extract only stimulated levels of PGE2. In all exposures, treatment with Nam significantly mitigated synthesis of the inflammatory mediators and restored levels of UVB‐reduced LmnB1. In the 3D skin equivalent model, Nam reduced IL‐8 levels stimulated by a combination of topical PM2.5 and UV exposure. In a UV challenge clinical, pretreatment with 5% Nam reduced erythema and skin surface IL‐1αRA/IL‐1α inflammatory biomarkers that were induced by SSR. Conclusion Since it is known that Nam has anti‐inflammatory properties, we tested whether Nam can inhibit environmental stress‐induced inflammation and senescence‐associated secretory phenotype (SASP) biomarkers. We show Nam can reduce PGE2, IL‐6 and IL‐8 levels induced by environmental stressors. Additionally, in vivo pretreatment with Nam can reduce UV‐induced erythema and skin surface inflammatory biomarkers. These findings add to the body of evidence that Nam can mitigate the skin’s inflammatory response elicited by environmental stressors. This supports Nam can potentially inhibit senescence and premature ageing and thereby maintain skin’s functionality and appearance.

BackgroundHyperpigmented spots are common issues in all ethnicities, involving multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as UVB exposure, hormone balance, inflammatory status and ageing.ObjectivesTo determine (i) melanocyte dendricity in multiple facial spot types, (ii) impact of High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1), and the combination of sucrose dilaurate and sucrose laurate (SDL) on melanogenesis and melanocyte dendricity, and (iii) SDL effect on facial spots in a human use test.MethodsFacial spot and adjacent non‐spot skin biopsies were collected from Chinese women (age 20‐70). Histological assessment of melanocyte dendricity was performed for 3 spot types (solar lentigo, melasma and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation) by immunofluorescent staining for c‐kit/MITF. Keratinocyte, melanocyte and melanocyte–keratinocyte co‐culture models were used to assess HMGB1 release by UVB radiation, the effects of HMGB1 and SDL on melanin production, melanocyte dendricity and melanosome transfer. The effect of an SDL‐containing moisturizer on appearance of facial hyperpigmented spots was assessed against a vehicle control in an 8‐week human use test.ResultsMelanocytes in spot areas are more dendritic than melanocytes in adjacent non‐spot skin across three investigated spot types. In cell culture models, a moderate UVB‐radiation exposure caused release of HMGB1 from keratinocytes. HMGB1 did not alter melanin production in melanocytes, but enhanced melanocyte dendricity and melanosome transfer. SDL reduced HMGB1 release from keratinocytes, inhibited melanin production, reversibly suppressed melanocyte dendricity and reduced melanosome transfer. In the human use test, SDL‐containing moisturizer reduced appearance of spots versus vehicle.ConclusionIncreased melanocyte dendricity was observed in multiple types of facial spots. Addition of HMGB1 protein increased melanocyte dendricity and melanosome transfer in cell cultures, implicating potential involvement in spot formation. SDL suppressed melanin production, melanocyte dendricity and melanosome transfer in vitro and reduced appearance of spots in the use test, suggesting SDL is an effective solution to address hyperpigmented spot concerns.

BackgroundThe accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) can impact cellular homoeostasis and protein structure, thus is implicated in numerous skin conditions including yellow, dull appearance. AGE formation is irreversible; thus, understanding of the recycling process of AGEs in the skin is critical for addressing skin appearance conditions.ObjectiveTo determine whether (i) accumulation of AGEs occurs in dull appearance group among young population (age 20–29) (ii) in vitro autophagy stimulation results in reduction of AGEs in keratinocytes.MethodsFacial cheek biopsies were collected from Chinese women (age 20–50) exhibiting either dull or non‐dull appearing skin. Histological assessment of glycation was performed for representative subjects among the 20–29 years sub‐group by immunofluorescence staining of AGEs. LC‐MS methods and keratinocyte cell culture were used to assess impact of autophagy modulators and skin care materials on carboxymethyl lysine (CML) amount, a representative AGE.ResultsNotable amounts of AGEs were observed in the epidermal samples among young females. Interestingly, the amount of AGEs was significantly higher among the dull skin appearance group. Treatment of keratinocytes with glyceraldehyde (GLA) enhanced CML in the cells, and postglycation treatment with autophagy activators reduced CML. Two skin care materials, Nymphaea alba flower extract (a.k.a. white water lily extract) and sucrose dilaurate, were identified based from in vitro autophagy activation and found to reduce CML in keratinocytes.ConclusionWe found AGEs accumulate in the facial epidermis even among young people, correlating to a yellow and dull appearance. We also demonstrated in vitro activation of autophagy can reduce AGEs in keratinocytes, and autophagy activating skin care materials, N. alba flower extract and sucrose dilaurate, also reduce AGEs in the keratinocyte in vitro model. These data suggest epidermal AGEs contribute to the dull skin appearance, and autophagy activators may provide an effective solution to improve dull appearance by removing and recycling the accumulated glycation in the skin.

These data indicate that regulation of proteasome activity is a viable target for control of melanin production, that 2-hexyldecanol upregulates proteasomal activity in melanocytes, and that topical 2-hexyldecanol reduces the appearance of hyperpigmentation.

Sallow and/or dull skin appearance is greatly attributable to the yellow components of skin tone. Bilirubin is a yellow chromophore known to be made in the liver and/or spleen and is transported throughout the body via the blood stream. Recent publications suggest bilirubin may be synthesized in other cells/organs, including the skin. We found human keratinocytes express the transcripts involved in bilirubin biosynthesis. In parallel, we also found human keratinocytes could indeed synthesize bilirubin in monolayer keratinocytes and in a 3D human skin-equivalent model. The synthesized amount was substantial enough to contribute to skin yellowness. In addition, oxidative stress enhanced bilirubin production. Using UnaG, a protein that forms a fluorescent species upon binding to bilirubin, we also visualized the intracellular expression of bilirubin in keratinocytes. Finally, we screened a compound library and discovered that the sucrose laurate/dilaurate (SDL) combination significantly reduced bilirubin levels, as well as bilirubin-mediated yellowness. In conclusion, bilirubin is indeed synthesized in epidermal keratinocytes and can be upregulated by oxidative stress, which could contribute to chronic or transient yellow skin tone appearance. Application of SDL diminishes bilirubin generation and may be a potential solution to mitigate yellowish and/or dull skin appearance.

Galactomyces ferment filtrate (GFF, Pitera™) is a cosmetic ingredient known to have multiple skin care benefits, such as reducing redness and pore size via the topical application of its moisturizer form. Although GFF is known to act partly as an antioxidative agonist for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), its significance in keratinocyte biology is not fully understood. In this study, we conducted a transcriptomic analysis of GFF-treated human keratinocytes. Three different lots of GFF consistently modulated 99 (22 upregulated and 77 downregulated) genes, including upregulating cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), a specific downstream gene for AHR activation. GFF also enhanced the expression of epidermal differentiation/barrier-related genes, such as small proline-rich proteins 1A and 1B (SPRR1A and SPRR1B), as well as wound healing-related genes such as serpin B2 (SERPINB2). Genes encoding components of tight junctions claudin-1 (CLDN1) and claudin-4 (CLDN4) were also target genes upregulated in the GFF-treated keratinocytes. In contrast, the three lots of GFF consistently downregulated the expression of inflammation-related genes such as chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 14 (CXCL14) and interleukin-6 receptor (IL6R). These results highlight the beneficial properties of GFF in maintaining keratinocyte homeostasis.

BackgroundMacromolecules in skin cells are damaged when exposed to environmental stressors, leading to disrupted cellular function and homeostasis. While epidermal turnover can eliminate some of this damage, autophagy can rapidly remove these defective components. Niacinamide (Nam) is known to induce autophagy and optimizing formulations to maximize this response could provide improved homeostasis in stressed skin.ObjectiveTo determine (i) whether Nam can induce autophagy related 5 (ATG5), an autophagy marker, in human keratinocytes and (ii) whether optimized low pH Nam formulations can enhance the response in 3D skin models.MethodsHuman keratinocytes treated with Nam were evaluated for autophagosome accumulation and induction of ATG5 by gene expression, immunoblotting and immune‐fluorescence microscopy. 3D skin equivalents were topically treated with Nam formulations at pH 5.8 and 3.8. Gene expression profiling and immunoblot analysis of ATG5 were performed.ResultsNam treatment of keratinocytes led to an accumulation of autophagosomes with a maximal signal at 48 h. Gene expression of ATG5 was induced by Nam, and immunoblots stained for ATG5 showed a significant increase after 6 h of treatment. Gene expression profiling of 3D epidermal skin equivalents treated with Nam at pH 3.8 showed stronger induction of autophagy‐related genes, including ATG5, compared with pH 5.8 formulas. Enrichment for gene ontology terms on autophagy showed an increased linkage with Nam formulas at pH 3.8.ConclusionsWe found that Nam induces autophagosome accumulation and ATG5 levels in keratinocytes. We also discovered that a Nam formulation at pH 3.8 can further increase levels of ATG5 in 3D skin models when compared to Nam at pH 5.8. These data support that Nam can induce autophagy in keratinocytes and formulations at pH 3.8 can enhance the impact. We hypothesize that optimized formulations at pH 3.8 can improve skin ageing appearance via autophagy induction.