Background Disruption of the epithelial barrier might be a risk factor for allergen sensitization and asthma. Viral respiratory tract infections are strongly associated with asthma exacerbation, but the effects of respiratory viruses on airway epithelial barrier function are not well understood. Many viruses generate double-stranded RNA, which can lead to airway inflammation and initiate an antiviral immune response. Objectives We investigated the effects of the synthetic double-stranded RNA polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) on the structure and function of the airway epithelial barrier in vitro. Methods 16HBE14o- human bronchial epithelial cells and primary airway epithelial cells at an air-liquid interface were grown to confluence on Transwell inserts and exposed to polyI:C. We studied epithelial barrier function by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance and paracellular flux of fluorescent markers and structure of epithelial apical junctions by means of immunofluorescence microscopy. Results PolyI:C induced a profound decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance and increase in paracellular permeability. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed markedly reduced junctional localization of zonula occludens-1, occludin, E-cadherin, β-catenin, and disorganization of junction-associated actin filaments. PolyI:C induced protein kinase D (PKD) phosphorylation, and a PKD antagonist attenuated polyI:C-induced disassembly of apical junctions and barrier dysfunction. Conclusions PolyI:C has a powerful and previously unsuspected disruptive effect on the airway epithelial barrier. PolyI:C-dependent barrier disruption is mediated by disassembly of epithelial apical junctions, which is dependent on PKD signaling. These findings suggest a new mechanism potentially underlying the associations between viral respiratory tract infections, airway inflammation, and allergen sensitization.

Understanding the regulation of airway epithelial barrier function is a new frontier in asthma and respiratory viral infections. Despite recent progress, little is known about how respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) acts at mucosal sites, and very little is known about its ability to influence airway epithelial barrier function. Here, we studied the effect of RSV infection on the airway epithelial barrier using model epithelia. 16HBE14o-bronchial epithelial cells were grown on Transwell inserts and infected with RSV strain A2. We analyzed (i) epithelial apical junction complex (AJC) function, measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability to fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated dextran, and (ii) AJC structure using immunofluorescent staining. Cells were pretreated or not with protein kinase D (PKD) inhibitors. UV-irradiated RSV served as a negative control. RSV infection led to a significant reduction in TEER and increase in permeability. Additionally it caused disruption of the AJC and remodeling of the apical actin cytoskeleton. Pretreatment with two structurally unrelated PKD inhibitors markedly attenuated RSV-induced effects. RSV induced phosphorylation of the actin binding protein cortactin in a PKD-dependent manner. UV-inactivated RSV had no effect on AJC function or structure. Our results suggest that RSV-induced airway epithelial barrier disruption involves PKD-dependent actin cytoskeletal remodeling, possibly dependent on cortactin activation. Defining the mechanisms by which RSV disrupts epithelial structure and function should enhance our understanding of the association between respiratory viral infections, airway inflammation, and allergen sensitization. Impaired barrier function may open a potential new therapeutic target for RSV-mediated lung diseases. R espiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common respiratory pathogen in infants and young children (1) and an important cause of death in childhood (2). RSV has been identified as a source of morbidity and mortality in elderly and high-risk adults (3). RSV infects airway epithelial cells and is thought to cause tissue pathology by inducing the expression of proinflammatory mediators, leading to airway inflammation and, ultimately, an antiviral immune response (4). RSV also induces the expression of antiapoptotic genes and promotes epithelial cell survival, which is probably a strategy to ensure viral replication in infected cells (5).Emerging evidence points to a role for airway barrier dysfunction during respiratory viral infections (6), as well as in stable asthmatics (7). The airway barrier is made up of the surface mucus layer, as well as apical junction complexes (AJC) that regulate paracellular permeability (8). Previously we demonstrated that polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I-C)], a synthetic doublestranded RNA and viral mimetic, induces potent breakdown of the airway epithelial AJC in a protein kinase D (PKD)-dependent manner (9). PKD, formerly known as PKC, is a serine/threonine protein kinase fami...

Most viral infections occur in extralymphoid tissues, yet the mechanisms that regulate lymphocytes in these environments are poorly understood. One feature common to many extralymphoid environments is an abundance of extracellular matrix. We have studied the expression of two members of the β1 integrin family of collagen-binding receptors, α1β1 and α2β1 (CD49a, VLA-1 and CD49b, VLA-2, respectively), on CD4 and CD8 T cells during the response to influenza infection in the lung. Flow cytometry showed that whereas T cells infiltrating the lung and airways can express both CD49a and CD49b, CD49a expression was most strongly associated with the CD8+ subset. Conversely, though fewer CD4+ T cells expressed CD49a, most CD4+ cells in the lung tissue or airways expressed CD49b. This reciprocal pattern suggested that CD4 and CD8 T cells might localize differently within the lung tissue and this was supported by immunofluorescent analysis. CD8+ cells tended to localize in close proximity to the collagen IV-rich basement membranes of either the airways or blood vessels, whereas CD4+ cells tended to localize in the collagen I-rich interstitial spaces, with few in the airways. These observations suggest that CD4 T cell interaction with the tissue microenvironment is distinct from CD8 T cells and support the concept that CD4+ T cells in peripheral tissues are regulated differently than the CD8 subset.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high-production volume chemical classified as an environmental estrogen and used primarily in the plastics industry. BPA's increased usage correlates with rising BPA levels in people and a corresponding increase in the incidence of asthma. Due to limited studies, the contribution of maternal BPA exposure to allergic asthma pathogenesis is unclear. Using two established mouse models of allergic asthma, we examined whether developmental exposure to BPA alters hallmarks of allergic lung inflammation in adult offspring. Pregnant C57BL/6 dams were gavaged with 0, 0.5, 5, 50, or 500 μg BPA/kg/day from gestational day 6 until postnatal day 21. To induce allergic inflammation, adult offspring were mucosally sensitized with inhaled ovalbumin containing low-dose lipopolysaccharide or ip sensitized using ovalbumin with alum followed by ovalbumin aerosol challenge. In the mucosal sensitization model, female offspring that were maternally exposed to ≥ 50 μg BPA/kg/day displayed enhanced airway lymphocytic and lung inflammation, compared with offspring of control dams. Peritoneally sensitized, female offspring exposed to ≤ 50 μg BPA/kg/day presented dampened lung eosinophilia, compared with vehicle controls. Male offspring did not exhibit these differences in either sensitization model. Our data demonstrate that maternal exposure to BPA has subtle and qualitatively different effects on allergic inflammation, which are critically dependent upon route of allergen sensitization and sex. However, these subtle, yet persistent changes due to developmental exposure to BPA did not lead to significant differences in overall airway responsiveness, suggesting that early life exposure to BPA does not exacerbate allergic inflammation into adulthood.

During the immune response to influenza infection, activated T cells are distributed to both lymphoid and extralymphoid tissues, including the infected airways where direct recognition of viral Ag-bearing cells takes place. The collagen-binding α1β1 integrin VLA-1 is essential for the development of memory CD8+ T cells in the airways, and although expressed by some CD4+ T cells, its significance has not been demonstrated. We investigated the role of VLA-1 on virus-specific CD4+ T cells during and after primary or secondary influenza infection of mice. The proportion of CD4+ cells expressing CD49a (α1 integrin) was low in all tissues sampled during primary infection but increased in the airways after viral clearance. Furthermore, during the first 24 h of a secondary influenza challenge, the majority of IFN-γ–secreting effector CD4+ T cells from the airways was in the CD49a+ population. Airway CD49a+CD4+ cells also expressed reduced markers of apoptosis compared with CD49a− cells, and fewer memory or effector CD4+ cells could be recovered from airways of α1−/− mice, although lymphoid tissues appeared unaffected. These data suggest VLA-1 expression defines a population of tissue memory CD4+ T cells that act as rapid effectors upon reinfection, and VLA-1 expression is integral to their accumulation in the airways.