[1] In this study, a first set of four present-day global experiments with the ECHAM5 atmospheric general circulation model enhanced by stable water isotope diagnostics (ECHAM5-wiso) is presented. Model resolution varies from a typical coarse horizontal grid of 3.8°× 3.8°(T31) to a fine grid of 0.75°× 0.75°(T159). Vertical resolution varies from 19 to 31 model levels. On a global scale, the ECHAM5-wiso simulation results are in good agreement with available observations of the isotopic composition of precipitation from the Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP), on an annual as well as a seasonal time scale. In many instances, the isotope simulation results clearly benefit from an increased horizontal and vertical model resolution. The exemplary relevance of this model resolution dependence is demonstrated for the simulation of the isotopic composition of Antarctic precipitation. Here, the simulation with the fine T159L31 model resolution not only yields a better agreement with observational data sets but also allows for a more realistic retuning of the supersaturation function leading to improved deuterium excess performance over the Antarctic continent, which is important for the interpretation of polar ice cores. Finally, the ECHAM5-wiso simulation results are compared to newly available measurements of the isotopic composition of atmospheric water vapor. Model and data agree well, with differences in the range of ±10‰ for near-surface atmospheric values at several GNIP stations. A comparison of the ECHAM5-wiso simulations with total column averaged HDO data from the Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Cartography (SCIAMACHY) instrument on board the environmental satellite Envisat shows the same latitudinal gradients but an offset between 20‰ and 50‰ of unknown origin.Citation: Werner, M., P. M. Langebroek, T. Carlsen, M. Herold, and G. Lohmann (2011), Stable water isotopes in the ECHAM5 general circulation model: Toward high-resolution isotope modeling on a global scale,

Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) measures how much the global mean surface air temperature will ultimately increase for a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and has become the standard metric to quantify how sensitive Earth's climate is to atmospheric greenhouse gas perturbations. For decades, global climate models (GCMs) have produced ECSs between approximately 2 and 4.5°C, but interestingly, that is about to change: a large subset of GCMs participating in the ongoing 6 th coupled model intercomparison project (CMIP6) is producing ECSs well above 5°C. The latest version of the Community Earth System Model, CESM2 1 , is an example of such a high-ECS model. It reproduces the historical temperature record well despite its high ECS, contrary to what has previously been considered possible 2 . This can be explained by the fact that CESM2 has a net positive cloud-climate feedback that grows with time -the warmer it gets, the more clouds change in a way that further amplifies the warming, while for modest warming this amplification is much smaller. We have identified the physical mechanism responsible for this transition to a high-sensitivity climate state in CESM2 and argue that our findings demand a reevaluation of prior observational constraints on ECS. Further, we argue that while the exact timing and magnitude of the transition may be model dependent, its existence is undisputable, and the associated policy-implications are wide-reaching.Cloud feedbacks, i.e. the extent to which clouds amplify or dampen perturbations to Earth's climate, represent the largest source of uncertainty in estimating the climate sensitivity in GCMs 3 . Clouds come in many flavours and respond differently to warming depending on their type and characteristics -for example, high tropical ice clouds tend to rise to higher altitudes 4 , while the amount of low subtropical clouds is expected to reduce, with warming 5 . These two well established warming-induced cloud changes both represent positive (amplifying) feedbacks 6 .

Abstract. The optical-equivalent snow grain size affects the reflectivity of snow surfaces and, thus, the local surface energy budget in particular in polar regions. Therefore, the specific surface area (SSA), from which the optical snow grain size is derived, was observed for a 2-month period in central Antarctica (Kohnen research station) during austral summer 2013/14. The data were retrieved on the basis of ground-based spectral surface albedo measurements collected by the COmpact RAdiation measurement System (CORAS) and airborne observations with the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation measurement sysTem (SMART). The snow grain size and pollution amount (SGSP) algorithm, originally developed to analyze spaceborne reflectance measurements by the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), was modified in order to reduce the impact of the solar zenith angle on the retrieval results and to cover measurements in overcast conditions. Spectral ratios of surface albedo at 1280 and 1100 nm wavelength were used to reduce the retrieval uncertainty. The retrieval was applied to the ground-based and airborne observations and validated against optical in situ observations of SSA utilizing an IceCube device. The SSA retrieved from CORAS observations varied between 27 and 89 m 2 kg −1 . Snowfall events caused distinct relative maxima of the SSA which were followed by a gradual decrease in SSA due to snow metamorphism and wind-induced transport of freshly fallen ice crystals. The ability of the modified algorithm to include measurements in overcast conditions improved the data coverage, in particular at times when precipitation events occurred and the SSA changed quickly. SSA retrieved from measurements with CORAS and MODIS agree with the in situ observations within the ranges given by the measurement uncertainties. However, SSA retrieved from the airborne SMART data slightly underestimated the ground-based results.

The Arctic is warming at more than twice the rate of the global average. This warming is influenced by clouds which modulate the solar and terrestrial radiative fluxes, and thus, determine the surface energy budget. However, the interactions among clouds, aerosols, and radiative fluxes in the Arctic are still poorly understood. To address these uncertainties, the Ny-Ålesund AeroSol Cloud ExperimeNT (NASCENT) study was conducted from September 2019 to August 2020 in Ny-Ålesund Svalbard. The campaign’s primary goal was to elucidate the life cycle of aerosols in the Arctic and to determine how they modulate cloud properties throughout the year. In-situ and remote sensing observations were taken on the ground at sea-level and at a mountaintop station, and with a tethered balloon system. An overview of the meteorological and the main aerosol seasonality encountered during the NASCENT year is introduced, followed by a presentation of first scientific highlights. In particular, we present new findings on aerosol physicochemical properties which also include molecular properties. Further, the role of cloud droplet activation and ice crystal nucleation in the formation and persistence of mixed-phase clouds, and the occurrence of secondary ice processes, are discussed and compared to the representation of cloud processes within the regional Weather Research and Forecasting model. The paper concludes with research questions that are to be addressed in upcoming NASCENT publications.

Abstract. The Arctic is very susceptible to climate change and thus warming much faster than the rest of the world. Clouds influence terrestrial and solar radiative fluxes, and thereby impact the amplified Arctic warming. The partitioning of thermodynamic phases (i.e. ice crystals and water droplets) within mixed-phase clouds (MPCs) especially influences their radiative properties. However, the processes responsible for ice crystal formation remain only partially characterized. In particular, so-called secondary ice production (SIP) processes, which create supplementary ice crystals from primary ice crystals and the environmental conditions that they occur in, are poorly understood. The microphysical properties of Arctic MPCs were measured during the Ny-Ålesund AeroSol Cloud ExperimENT (NASCENT) campaign to obtain a better understanding of the atmospheric conditions favorable for the occurrence of SIP processes. To this aim, the in-situ cloud microphysical properties retrieved by a holographic cloud imager mounted on a tethered balloon system were complemented by ground-based remote sensing and ice nucleating particle measurements. During six days investigated in this study, SIP occurred during 40 % of the in-cloud measurements and high SIP events with number concentrations larger than 10 L-1 of small pristine ice crystals in 3.5 % of the in-cloud measurements. This demonstrates the role of SIP for Arctic MPCs. The highest concentrations of small pristine ice crystals were produced at temperatures between -3 °C and -5 °C and were related to the occurrence of drizzle drops freezing upon collision with ice crystals. This suggests that a large fraction of ice crystals in Arctic MPCs is produced via the droplet shattering mechanism. From evaluating the ice crystal images, we could identify ice-ice collision as a second SIP mechanism that dominated when fragile ice crystals were observed. Moreover, SIP occurred over a large temperature range and was observed in up to 95 % of the measurements down to -24 °C due to the occurrence of ice-ice collisions. This emphasizes the importance of SIP at temperatures below -8 °C, which are currently not accounted for in most numerical weather models.

Abstract. The surface reflection of solar radiation comprises an important boundary condition for solar radiative transfer simulations. In polar regions above snow surfaces, the surface reflection is particularly anisotropic due to low Sun elevations and the highly anisotropic scattering phase function of the snow crystals. The characterization of this surface reflection anisotropy is essential for satellite remote sensing over both the Arctic and Antarctica. To quantify the angular snow reflection properties, the hemispherical-directional reflectance factor (HDRF) of snow surfaces was derived from airborne measurements in Antarctica during austral summer in 2013/14. For this purpose, a digital 180∘ fish-eye camera (green channel, 490–585 nm wavelength band) was used. The HDRF was measured for different surface roughness conditions, optical-equivalent snow grain sizes, and solar zenith angles. The airborne observations covered an area of around 1000 km × 1000 km in the vicinity of Kohnen Station (75∘0′ S, 0∘4′ E) at the outer part of the East Antarctic Plateau. The observations include regions with higher (coastal areas) and lower (inner Antarctica) precipitation amounts and frequencies. The digital camera provided upward, angular-dependent radiance measurements from the lower hemisphere. The comparison of the measured HDRF derived for smooth and rough snow surfaces (sastrugi) showed significant differences, which are superimposed on the diurnal cycle. By inverting a semi-empirical kernel-driven bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model, the measured HDRF of snow surfaces was parameterized as a function of solar zenith angle, surface roughness, and optical-equivalent snow grain size. This allows a direct comparison of the HDRF measurements with the BRDF derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite product MCD43. For the analyzed cases, MODIS observations (545–565 nm wavelength band) generally underestimated the anisotropy of the surface reflection. The largest deviations were found for the volumetric model weight fvol (average underestimation by a factor of 10). These deviations are likely linked to short-term changes in snow properties.

Abstract. The Arctic is very susceptible to climate change and thus is warming much faster than the rest of the world. Clouds influence terrestrial and solar radiative fluxes and thereby impact the amplified Arctic warming. The partitioning of thermodynamic phases (i.e., ice crystals and water droplets) within mixed-phase clouds (MPCs) especially influences their radiative properties. However, the processes responsible for ice crystal formation remain only partially characterized. In particular, so-called secondary ice production (SIP) processes, which create supplementary ice crystals from primary ice crystals and the environmental conditions that they occur in, are poorly understood. The microphysical properties of Arctic MPCs were measured during the Ny-Ålesund AeroSol Cloud ExperimENT (NASCENT) campaign to obtain a better understanding of the atmospheric conditions favorable for the occurrence of SIP processes. To this aim, the in situ cloud microphysical properties retrieved by a holographic cloud imager mounted on a tethered balloon system were complemented by ground-based remote sensing and ice-nucleating particle measurements. During the 6 d investigated in this study, SIP occurred during about 40 % of the in-cloud measurements, and high SIP events with number concentrations larger than 10 L−1 of small pristine ice crystals occurred in 4 % of the in-cloud measurements. This demonstrates the role of SIP for Arctic MPCs. The highest concentrations of small pristine ice crystals were produced at temperatures between −5 and −3 ∘C and were related to the occurrence of supercooled large droplets freezing upon collision with ice crystals. This suggests that a large fraction of ice crystals in Arctic MPCs are produced via the droplet-shattering mechanism. From evaluating the ice crystal images, we could identify ice–ice collision as a second SIP mechanism that dominated when fragile ice crystals were observed. Moreover, SIP occurred over a large temperature range and was observed in up to 80 % of the measurements down to −24 ∘C due to the occurrence of ice–ice collisions. This emphasizes the importance of SIP at temperatures below −8 ∘C, which are currently not accounted for in most numerical weather models. Although ice-nucleating particles may be necessary for the initial freezing of water droplets, the ice crystal number concentration is frequently determined by secondary production mechanisms.

Abstract. The angular reflection of solar radiation by snow surfaces comprises an important boundary condition for radiative transfer simulations. In polar regions, the surface reflection is particularly anisotropic due to low sun elevations and the highly anisotropic scattering phase function of ice crystals. This anisotropy needs to be considered in the angular modeling of the surface reflection, which is essential for satellite remote sensing techniques. To quantify the snow reflection properties, the hemispherical-directional reflectance function (HDRF) of snow surfaces was derived from airborne measurements using a digital 180° fish-eye camera (green channel, 490–585 nm wavelength band) in Antarctica during austral summer in 2013/14. This function was measured for different surface roughnesses, optical-equivalent snow grain sizes, and solar zenith angles. The airborne observations covered an area of around 1000 × 1000 km2 in the vicinity of Kohnen station (75°0′ S, 0°4′ E) at the outer part of the East Antarctic Plateau. The observations over Dronning Maud Land include regions with higher (coastal areas) and lower (inner Antarctica) precipitation amounts and frequencies. The digital camera was calibrated in terms of spectral radiances and installed in a downward-looking configuration on a research aircraft. It provides upward, angular-dependent radiance measurements from the lower hemisphere. The comparison of HDRF data derived for smooth and rough snow surfaces (sastrugi) showed significant differences, which are superimposed on the diurnal cycle. By inverting a semi-empirical, kernel-driven bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model, the measured HDRF of snow surfaces was parameterized with respect to solar zenith angle, surface roughness, and optical-equivalent snow grain size. This allows a direct comparison of the HDRF measurements with the BRDF derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite product MCD43. For the analyzed cases, MODIS observations generally underestimated the anisotropy of the surface reflection. Some of these deviations between airborne and MODIS satellite retrievals are likely linked to short-term changes in snow properties.