A complete set of candidate disease resistance ( R) genes encoding nucleotide-binding sites (NBSs) was identified in the genome sequence of japonica rice ( Oryza sativaL. var. Nipponbare). These putative R genes were characterized with respect to structural diversity, phylogenetic relationships and chromosomal distribution, and compared with those in Arabidopsis thaliana. We found 535 NBS-coding sequences, including 480 non-TIR (Toll/IL-1 receptor) NBS-LRR (Leucine Rich Repeat) genes. TIR NBS-LRR genes, which are common in A. thaliana, have not been identified in the rice genome. The number of non-TIR NBS-LRR genes in rice is 8.7 times higher than that in A. thaliana, and they account for about 1% of all of predicted ORFs in the rice genome. Some 76% of the NBS genes were located in 44 gene clusters or in 57 tandem arrays, and 16 apparent gene duplications were detected in these regions. Phylogenetic analyses based both NBS and N-terminal regions classified the genes into about 200 groups, but no deep clades were detected, in contrast to the two distinct clusters found in A. thaliana. The structural and genetic diversity that exists among NBS-LRR proteins in rice is remarkable, and suggests that diversifying selection has played an important role in the evolution of R genes in this agronomically important species. (Supplemental material is available online at http://gattaca.nju.edu.cn.)

Highlights d Tumor-secreted CTSC promotes breast-to-lung metastasis by regulating neutrophils d CTSC activates membrane-bound PR3 of neutrophils to upregulate IL-1b secretion d CTSC enhances neutrophil recruitment into metastatic niches and induces NETosis d Targeting CTSC with AZD7986 effectively inhibits lung metastasis in mice

Cholangiocytes are the epithelial cells that line the bile ducts. Along the biliary tree, two different kinds of cholangiocytes exist: small and large cholangiocytes. Each type has important differences in their biological role in physiologic and pathologic conditions. In response to injury, cholangiocytes become reactive and acquire a neuroendocrine-like phenotype with the secretion of a number of peptides. These molecules act in an autocrine/paracrine fashion to modulate cholangiocyte biology and determine the evolution of biliary damage. The failure of such mechanisms is believed to influence the progression of cholangiopathies, a group of diseases that selectively target biliary cells. Therefore, the understanding of mechanisms regulating cholangiocyte response to injury is expected to foster the development of new therapeutic options to treat biliary diseases. In this review, we discuss the most recent findings in the mechanisms driving cholangiocyte adaptation to damage, with particular emphasis on molecular pathways that are susceptible of therapeutic intervention. Morphogenic pathways (Hippo, Notch, Hedgehog), which have been recently shown to regulate biliary ontogenesis and response to injury, are also reviewed as well as the results of ongoing clinical trials evaluating new drugs for the treatment of cholangiopathies.

Substance P (SP) is involved in the proliferation of cholangiocytes in bile duct ligated (BDL) mice and human cholangiocarcinoma growth by interacting with the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R). To identify whether SP regulates liver fibrosis during cholestasis, wild type (WT) or NK-1R knockout (NK-1R−/−) mice that received BDL or sham surgery and Mdr2−/− mice treated with either an NK-1R antagonist (L-733,060) or saline were used. Additionally, WT mice were treated with SP or saline intraperitoneally. In vivo, there was increased expression of TAC1 (coding SP) and NK-1R in both BDL and Mdr2−/− mice compared to WT mice. The expression of TAC1 and NK-1R was significantly higher in liver samples from PSC patients compared to healthy controls. Knockout of NK-1R decreased BDL-induced liver fibrosis and treatment with L-733,060 resulted in decreased liver fibrosis in Mdr2−/− mice, which was shown by decreased Sirius red staining, fibrosis gene and protein expression and reduced transforming growth factor-β1 levels in serum and cholangiocytes supernatants. Furthermore, we observed that reduced liver fibrosis in NK-1R−/− mice with BDL surgery or Mdr2−/− mice treated with L-733,060 was associated with enhanced cellular senescence of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and decreased senescence of cholangiocytes. In vitro, L-733,060 inhibited SP-induced expression of fibrotic genes in HSCs and cholangiocytes. Treatment with L-733,060 partially reversed SP-induced decrease of senescence genes expression in cultured HSCs and SP-induced increase of senescence-related genes expression in cultured cholangiocytes. Collectively, our results demonstrated the regulatory effects of the SP/NK-1R axis on liver fibrosis through changes in cellular senescence during cholestatic liver injury.

Melatonin therapy or prolonged exposure to complete darkness reduces biliary hyperplasia and liver fibrosis in bile-duct-ligated (BDL) rats; however, no information exists in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Thus, we aimed to determine the therapeutic effects of prolonged dark therapy or melatonin administration on hepatic fibrosis in the multidrug resistance gene 2-knockout (Mdr2) mouse model of PSC. Melatonin levels, biliary mass, liver fibrosis, angiogenesis and miR-200b expression were evaluated in wild-type and Mdr2 mice exposed to darkness or melatonin treatment or in male patients with PSC and healthy controls. Mdr2 mice were also treated with miR-200b inhibitor or control before evaluating biliary mass, liver fibrosis, and angiogenesis. After overexpression of arylalkylamine -acetyltransferase (AANAT; the enzyme regulating melatonin synthesis) or inhibition of miR-200b in cholangiocytes and hepatic stellate cells, we evaluated angiogenesis and fibrosis gene expression. After exposure to darkness or administration of melatonin, Mdr2 mice show elevated serum melatonin levels and inhibition of biliary mass, along with reduction of liver fibrosis and angiogenesis. MicroRNA PCR analysis demonstrated that miR-200b expression increased in Mdr2 mice and patients with PSC compared with controls and decreased in Mdr2 mice subjected to dark exposure or melatonin treatment. Inhibition of miR-200b in Mdr2 ablates biliary proliferation, liver fibrosis, and angiogenesis. , overexpression of AANAT or inhibition of miR-200b in cholangiocytes and hepatic stellate cells decreased the expression of miR-200b, angiogenesis, and fibrosis genes. Dark therapy or targeting melatonin/miR-200b axis may be important in the management of biliary damage and liver fibrosis in cholangiopathies including PSC.-Wu, N., Meng, F., Zhou, T., Han, Y., Kennedy, L., Venter, J., Francis, H., DeMorrow, S., Onori, P., Invernizzi, P., Bernuzzi, F., Mancinelli, R., Gaudio, E., Franchitto, A., Glaser, S., Alpini G. Prolonged darkness reduces liver fibrosis in a mouse model of primary sclerosing cholangitis by miR-200b down-regulation.

The function of microRNAs (miRNAs) during alcoholic liver disease (ALD) has recently become of great interest in biological research. Studies have shown that ALD associated miRNAs play a crucial role in the regulation of liver-inflammatory agents such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), one of the key inflammatory agents responsible for liver fibrosis (liver scarring) and the critical contributor of alcoholic liver disease. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria, is responsible for TNF-α release by Kupffer cells. miRNAs are the critical mediators of LPS signalling in Kupffer cells, hepatocytes and hepatic stellate cells. Certain miRNAs, in particular miR-155 and miR-21, show a positive correlation in up-regulation of LPS signalling when they are exposed to ethanol. ALD is related to enhanced gut permeability that allows the levels of LPS to increase, leads to increased secretion of TNF-α by the Kupffer cells and subsequently promotes alcoholic liver injury through specific miRNAs. Meanwhile, two of the most frequently dysregulated miRNAs in steatohepatitis, miR-122 and miR-34a are the critical mediators in ethanol/LPS activated survival signalling during ALD. In this review, we summarize recent findings regarding the experimental and clinical aspects of functions of specific microRNAs, focusing mainly on inflammation and cell survival after ethanol/LPS treatment, and advances on the role of circulating miRNAs in human alcoholic disorders.

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Background & Aims Biliary-committed progenitor cells (small cholangiocytes, SMCCs) from small bile ducts are more resistant to hepatobiliary injury than large mouse cholangiocytes (LGCCs) from large bile ducts. The definitive endoderm marker, FoxA2 is the key transcriptional factor that regulates cell differentiation and tissue regeneration. Our aim was to characterize the translational role of FoxA2 during cholestatic liver injury. Methods mRNA expression in SMCCs and LGCCs was assessed by PCR array analysis. Liver tissues and hepatic stellate cells from PSC and PBC patients were tested by real-time PCR for methylation, senescence and fibrosis markers. Bile duct ligation (BDL) and MDR2 knockout mice (MDR2−/−) were used as animal models of cholestatic liver injury with or without healthy transplanted large or small cholangiocytes. Results We demonstrated that FoxA2 was notably enhanced in murine liver progenitor cells and SMCCs, and was silenced in human PSC and PBC liver tissues relative to respective controls that are correlated with the epigenetic methylation enzymes DNMT1 and DNMT3B. Serum ALT and AST levels in NOD/SCID mice engrafted with SMCCs after BDL showed significant changes compared with vehicle-treated mice, along with improved liver fibrosis. Enhanced expression of FoxA2 was observed in BDL mouse liver after SMCC cell therapy. Furthermore, activation of fibrosis signaling pathways were observed in BDL/MDR2−/− mouse liver as well as in isolated hepatic stellate cells by laser capture microdissection, and these signals were recovered along with reduced hepatic senescence and enhanced hepatic stellate cellular senescence after SMCC engraft. Conclusions The definitive endoderm marker and the positive regulator of biliary development, FoxA2, mediates the therapeutic effect of biliary-committed progenitor cells during cholestatic liver injury.