Methods Measurements of AMPK, ACC, and fatty acid oxidation in primary hepatocytes.Hepatocytes were isolated from male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats by collagenase digestion (18). For the AMPK assay, cells were seeded in six-well plates at 1.5 × 10 6 cells/well in DMEM containing 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 10% FBS, 100 nM insulin, 100 nM dexamethasone, and 5 µg/ml transferrin for 4 hours. Cells were then cultured in serum-free DMEM for 16 hours followed by treatment for 1 hour or 7 hours with control medium, 5-amino-imidazole carboxamide ribo-

Methods Measurements of AMPK, ACC, and fatty acid oxidation in primary hepatocytes.Hepatocytes were isolated from male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats by collagenase digestion (18). For the AMPK assay, cells were seeded in six-well plates at 1.5 × 10 6 cells/well in DMEM containing 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 µg/ml streptomycin, 10% FBS, 100 nM insulin, 100 nM dexamethasone, and 5 µg/ml transferrin for 4 hours. Cells were then cultured in serum-free DMEM for 16 hours followed by treatment for 1 hour or 7 hours with control medium, 5-amino-imidazole carboxamide ribo-

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) include three receptor subtypes encoded by separate genes: PPAR␣, PPAR␦, and PPAR␥. PPAR␥ has been implicated as a mediator of adipocyte differentiation and the mechanism by which thiazolidinedione drugs exert in vivo insulin sensitization. Here we characterized novel, non-thiazolidinedione agonists for PPAR␥ and PPAR␦ that were identified by radioligand binding assays. In transient transactivation assays these ligands were agonists of the receptors to which they bind. Protease protection studies showed that ligand binding produced specific alterations in receptor conformation. Both PPAR␥ and PPAR␦ directly interacted with a nuclear receptor co-activator (CREB-binding protein) in an agonist-dependent manner. Only the PPAR␥ agonists were able to promote differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. In diabetic db/db mice all PPAR␥ agonists were orally active insulin-sensitizing agents producing reductions of elevated plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations. In contrast, selective in vivo activation of PPAR␦ did not significantly affect these parameters. In vivo PPAR␣ activation with WY-14653 resulted in reductions in elevated triglyceride levels with minimal effect on hyperglycemia. We conclude that: 1) synthetic non-thiazolidinediones can serve as ligands of PPAR␥ and PPAR␦; 2) ligand-dependent activation of PPAR␦ involves an apparent conformational change and association of the receptor ligand binding domain with CREB-binding protein; 3) PPAR␥ activation (but not PPAR␦ or PPAR␣ activation) is sufficient to potentiate preadipocyte differentiation; 4) non-thiazolidinedione PPAR␥ agonists improve hyperglycemia and hypertriglyceridemia in vivo; 5) although PPAR␣ activation is sufficient to affect triglyceride metabolism, PPAR␦ activation does not appear to modulate glucose or triglyceride levels.

Antidiabetic thiazolidinediones (TZDs) and non-TZD compounds have been shown to serve as agonists of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma). Here, we report the identification and characterization of a novel non-TZD selective PPARgamma modulator (nTZDpa). nTZDpa bound potently to PPARgamma with high selectivity vs. PPARalpha or PPARdelta. In cell-based assays for transcriptional activation, nTZDpa served as a selective, potent PPARgamma partial agonist and was able to antagonize the activity of PPARgamma full agonists. nTZDpa also displayed partial agonist effects when its ability to promote adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells was evaluated. Assessment of protein conformation using protease protection or solution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy methods showed that nTZDpa produced altered PPARgamma conformational stability vs. full agonists, thereby establishing a physical basis for its observed partial agonism. DNA microarray analysis of RNA from 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with nTZDpa or several structurally diverse PPARgamma full agonists demonstrated qualitative differences in the affected gene expression profile for nTZDpa. Chronic treatment of fat-fed, C57BL/6J mice with nTZDpa or a TZD full agonist ameliorated hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. However, unlike the TZD, nTZDpa caused reductions in weight gain and adipose depot size. Feed efficiency was also substantially diminished. Unlike TZDs, nTZDpa did not cause cardiac hypertrophy in mice. When a panel of PPARgamma target genes was examined in white adipose tissue, nTZDpa produced a different in vivo expression pattern vs. the full agonist. These findings establish that novel selective PPARgamma modulators can produce altered receptor conformational stability leading to distinctive gene expression profiles, reduced adipogenic cellular effects, and potentially improved in vivo biological responses. Such compounds may lead to preferred therapies for diabetes, obesity, or metabolic syndrome.

The thiazolidinediones are novel insulin sensitizers that serve as orally active antidiabetic agents, in rodents, nonhuman primates, and man. We have examined the effects of 4-week oral administration of three thiazolidinediones (AD-5075, BRL 49653, and CS-045) on plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations in obese hyperglycemic db/db mice. All three agents lower plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations. Normal levels of glucose are achieved after treatment with AD-5075 (> 1.7 mg/kg) or BRL 49653 (> or = 30 mg/kg), whereas CS-045 (100 or 300 mg/kg) produces only modest reductions in either parameter. Although the thiazolidinediones have demonstrated insulin-sensitizing activities both in vivo and in vitro, their primary molecular target has been unclear. We have compared the in vivo antidiabetic actions described above with the in vitro activities on peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR gamma). Hamster PPAR gamma 1 was transiently expressed in COS-1 cells to study the binding of [3H]AD-5075. The concentrations of compounds needed to displace radiolabeled AD-5075 from PPAR gamma correlate with their in vivo potency; the Ki values for displacement by cold AD-5075, BRL 49653, and CS-045 are 22, 68, and 1600 nM, respectively. To examine activation of the receptor, it was transiently cotransfected into COS-1 cells with a reporter plasmid containing two copies of a peroxisome proliferator response element. The EC50 values for activation are 2, 6, and 140 nM for AD-5075, BRL 49653, and CS-045, respectively. We have also analyzed limited proteolytic digests of in vitro translated hamster PPAR gamma. The thiazolidinediones produce a conformational change in PPAR gamma analogous to those produced by agonists of other nuclear hormone receptors. In the presence of saturating concentrations of either AD-5075 or BRL 49653, a receptor fragment of 27 kDa is protected from proteolysis by trypsin. These data support the conclusion that the antidiabetic actions of the thiazolidinediones are directly mediated through binding to PPAR gamma and the resulting active conformation of the receptor. Therefore, binding and transactivation assays using PPAR gamma should serve to identify other novel therapeutic agents with potential antidiabetic activities.

During the preparation of the manuscript, the file conversion process led to the introduction of errors in the Methods section. The correct temperatures and procedures are listed below.Measurement of desaturation index. Fatty acid methyl esters were identified with an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph connected to an HP-5 column (30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 µM film thickness) connected to a flame ionization detector set at 250°C. The column and the injector temperature were set to 50°C. The column temperature was increased to 150°C at 4°C/min, increased to 200°C at 3°C/min, held at 200°C for 25 minutes, and then increased to 225°C at 25°C/min and held at 225°C for 10 minutes. Under these conditions, the ∆9-16:1, 16:0, ∆9-18:1, and 18:0 methyl esters eluted at 14. 2, 14.8, 19.4, and 20.2 minutes, respectively. The desaturation index was calculated as the ratios of ∆9-16:1/16:0 and ∆9-18:1/18:0.We regret these errors.

Obese (ob) is a recently identified gene involved in the regulation of energy balance in the mouse. We report here that AD-5075, a potent thiazolidinedione which lowered plasma glucose and triglyceride in Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats and db/db mice, decreased the expression of the ob gene in these animal models of obesity and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The level of adipose ob mRNA in ZDF rats was 3-fold greater than that detected in the Zucker lean littermates. Chronic treatment with AD-5075 elicited a 67 and 70% reduction of ob mRNA in ZDF and control lean rats, respectively. Furthermore, the amount of adipose ob mRNA in db/db mice was 7 times higher than that detected in lean littermates. Treatment of db/db mice with AD-5075 resulted in a 78% reduction of the level of ob mRNA with parallel changes in circulating level of the ob gene product, leptin. The reduction of the ob mRNA in the Zucker lean rats was accompanied by significantly greater food intake and weight gain. However, in ZDF rats and db/db mice, there was profound increase in body weight without hyperphagia. The results demonstrate that the expression of the ob gene is up-regulated in these two rodent models of diabetes compared to their lean counterparts and that such overexpression is attenuated by treatment with an agent that improves insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis in vivo.

To address the hypothesis that tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha has a role in obesity-associated insulin resistance or the regulation of in vivo lipid metabolism, mice with targeted disruption of the TNF-alpha gene were generated and studied. The absence of TNF-alpha protein in TNF-null (-/-) mice was confirmed. Lean or obese (gold-thioglucose [GTG]-injected) homozygous (-/-) mice were compared with lean or obese age- and sex-matched wild-type (+/+) mice derived from the same line at 13, 19, and 28 weeks of age. The following parameters were significantly affected in lean -/- versus +/+ mice: Body weight was not affected until week 28 (decreased by 14%); epididymal fat pad weight also decreased (25%) at this time, as did percentage body fat (16%), while percentage body protein was increased 13%. Fed plasma insulin levels decreased 47% (28 weeks), triglyceride levels decreased (all three ages; maximum 35% at 19 weeks), and fed plasma leptin decreased 33% (28 weeks). Fasting glucose was slightly (10%) reduced, but the glucose response to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was not affected. There was a trend (NS) toward increased total adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase in -/- versus +/+ mice. GTG-treatment resulted in obese -/- and +/+ mice with equal mean body weights (42 and 58% increased weight versus lean mice). The following parameters were significantly different in obese -/- mice: fasting plasma glucose decreased 13% (28 weeks), fed plasma insulin decreased 67% (28 weeks), and insulin response to OGTT was decreased by 50%. For both groups of obese mice, glucose levels during the OGTT were substantially increased compared with those in lean mice; however, mean stimulated glucose levels were 20% lower in obese -/- versus +/+ mice. We conclude 1) that TNF-alpha functions to regulate plasma triglycerides and body adiposity and 2) that although TNF-alpha contributes to reduced insulin sensitivity in older or obese mice, the absence of TNF-alpha is not sufficient to substantially protect against insulin resistance in the GTG hyperphagic model of rodent obesity.