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Treatment advances and higher participation rates in clinical trials have rapidly increased the number of survivors of childhood cancer. However, chemotherapy and radiation treatments are cardiotoxic and can cause cardiomyopathy, conduction defects, myocardial infarction, hypertension, stroke, pulmonary oedema, dyspnoea and exercise intolerance later in life. These cardiotoxic effects are often progressive and irreversible, emphasizing a need for effective prevention and treatment to reduce or avoid cardiotoxicity. Medical interventions, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, β-blockers, and growth hormone therapy, might be used to treat cardiotoxicity in childhood cancer survivors. Preventative strategies should include the use of dexrazoxane, which provides cardioprotection without reducing the oncological efficacy of doxorubicin chemotherapy; less-toxic anthracycline derivatives and the use of antioxidant nutritional supplements might also be beneficial. Continuous-infusion doxorubicin provides no benefit over bolus infusion in children. Identifying patient-related (for example, obesity and hypertension) and drug-related (for example, cumulative dose) risk factors for cardiotoxicity could help tailor treatments to individual patients. However, all survivors of childhood cancer are at increased risk of cardiotoxicity, suggesting that survivor screening recommendations for assessment of global risk of premature cardiovascular disease should apply to all survivors. Optimal, evidence-based monitoring strategies and multiagent preventative treatments still need to be identified.

Pediatric cardiomyopathies, which are rare but serious disorders of the muscles of the heart, affect at least one in every 100,000 children in the USA. Approximately 40% of children with symptomatic cardiomyopathy undergo heart transplantation or die from cardiac complications within 2 years. However, a significant number of children suffering from cardiomyopathy are surviving into adulthood, making it an important chronic illness for both pediatric and adult clinicians to understand. The natural history, risk factors, prevalence and incidence of this pediatric condition were not fully understood before the 1990s. Questions regarding optimal diagnostic, prognostic and treatment methods remain. Children require long-term follow-up into adulthood in order to identify the factors associated with best clinical practice including diagnostic approaches, as well as optimal treatment approaches. In this article, we comprehensively review current research on various presentations of this disease, along with current knowledge about their causes, treatments and clinical outcomes.

Clinically, girls appear to be more sensitive than boys to the cardiotoxic effects of doxorubicin, whereas the opposite may be true for adults. To identify and characterize potential sex-related differences, adult male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR; some ovariectomized [OVX]) received 1 mg/kg of doxorubicin or saline iv weekly for 9, 10, or 12 weeks. Weight gain was slower in treated males. Serum concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides increased and those of albumin decreased in both sexes, but changes were more pronounced in treated males. Treated males had significantly more severe cardiomyopathy scores and higher serum levels of cTnT than females. The increased cardiotoxicity was accompanied by higher numbers of cardiac mast cells (MCs) and percentage of cardiac MCs undergoing degranulation. Doxorubicin-treated OVX animals had significantly increased numbers of cardiac MCs, more severe myocardial lesions, and elevated serum concentrations of cTnT compared to doxorubicin-treated normal female SHR. The severity of cardiac lesions in the OVX female was similar to that observed in doxorubicin-treated males. This study demonstrated the presence of sex-related differences in the cardiotoxic effects elicited by doxorubicin and identified variations in the level of cardiac MC activity as a factor which could possibly contribute to the male-female dissimilarity.

IntroductionHuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a primary cause of acquired heart disease, particularly of accelerated atherosclerosis, symptomatic heart failure, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Cardiac complications often occur in late-stage HIV infections as prolonged viral infection is becoming more relevant as longevity improves. Thus, multi-agent HIV therapies that help sustain life may also increase the risk of cardiovascular events and accelerated atherosclerosis.DiscussionBefore highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), the two-to-five-year incidence of symptomatic heart failure ranged from 4 to 28% in HIV patients. Patients both before and after HAART also frequently have asymptomatic abnormalities in cardiovascular structure. Echocardiographic measurements indicate left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction in 18%, LV hypertrophy in 6.5%, and left atrial dilation in 40% of patients followed on HAART therapy. Diastolic dysfunction is also common in long-term survivors of HIV infection. Accelerated atherosclerosis has been found in HIV-infected young adults and children without traditional coronary risk factors. Infective endocarditis, although rare in children, has high mortality in late-stage AIDS patients with poor nutritional status and severely compromised immune systems. Although lymphomas have been found in HIV-infected children, the incidence is low and cardiac malignancy is rare. Rates of congenital cardiovascular malformations range from 5.6 to 8.9% in cohorts of HIV-uninfected and HIV-infected children with HIV-infected mothers. In non-HIV-infected infants born to HIV-infected mothers, foetal exposure to ART is associated with reduced LV dimension, LV mass, and septal wall thickness and with higher LV fractional shortening and contractility during the first two years of life.ConclusionsRoutine, systematic, and comprehensive cardiac evaluation, including a thorough history and directed laboratory assays, is essential for the care of HIV-infected adults and children as cardiovascular illness has become a part of care for long-term survivors of HIV infection. The history should include traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis, prior opportunistic infections, environmental exposures, and therapeutic and illicit drug use. Laboratory tests should include a lipid profile, fasting glucose, and HIV viral load. Asymptomatic cardiac disease related to HIV can be fatal, and secondary effects of HIV infection often disguise cardiac symptoms, so systematic echocardiographic monitoring is warranted.

Higher lifetime cumulative doses of anthracyclines, younger age at diagnosis, longer follow-up, female sex, higher dose rates and cranial irradiation are associated with more severe cardiotoxic effects. Long-term adverse effects of both anthracycline and non-anthracycline chemotherapeutic agents are becoming an increasing focus during treatment of childhood malignancies. There must be a careful balance between achieving remission of childhood ALL while avoiding the development of another often-fatal illness, heart failure.

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In our study, ear cartilage grafts harvested from the posterior approach had significantly greater length, width, and surface area. While this analysis has several limitations, it sets quantitative norms for costal and auricular cartilage harvest that can aid in surgical planning.