Although cognitive psychology currently represents the mainstream of psychological and educational thinking, it is only recently that much concern has been shown for learning as such — that is, concern for the factors and/or variables that influence changes in human performance, knowledge structures, and/or conceptions. This article examines current thinking about learning within the framework of cognitive psychology and how a new, cognitive conception of learning can guide future research on both learning and instruction. Similarities and, differences between behavioral and cognitive conceptions of learning are discussed, along with issues such as the active (rather than passive) nature of learning, the concern for understanding (i.e., comprehension), the role of prior knowledge, the cumulative nature of most forms of human learning, and the role played by cognitive analyses of performance. Several cognitive theories of learning are presented as examples of how cognitive psychology has influenced research on learning.

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Research on clustering and subjective organization (SO) in free recall is reviewed and evaluated. Various indexes developed to measure clustering and SO are evaluated, and two intercorrelation matrices among clustering measures and the number of words recalled are presented. The existence of a large negative bias in the correlation between the ratio of repetition (RR) measure and recall is demonstrated. Various theoretical issues which have developed from the study of organization in free recall are presented and discussed.

The research literature is examined for evidence suggesting that in complex, meaningful learning the learner passes through a series of stages or phases during which the learning process and the variables influencing it change systematically. After discussing various conceptual and methodological issues, phase theories in both simpler and more meaningful forms of learning are reviewed. Finally, the initial, intermediate, and terminal phases of learning are discussed. It is suggested that during the initial phase of learning the individual typically acquires isolated facts that are interpreted in terms of preexisting schemata and added to existing knowledge structures. Gradually, the learner begins to assemble these pieces into new schemata that provide him or her with more conceptual power until a level of automaticity is achieved.

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