Exosomes are 30–150 nm vesicles secreted by a wide range of mammalian cells that can contain microRNA (miRNA). To test if marrow stromal cell (MSC) exosomes could be used as a vehicle for delivery of anti-tumor miRNAs, we transfected MSCs with a miR-146b expression plasmid, and harvested exosomes released by the MSCs. Intra-tumor injection of exosomes derived from miR-146-expressing MSCs significantly reduced glioma xenograft growth in a rat model of primary brain tumor.

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The chemokines use G protein-coupled receptors to regulate the migratory and proadhesive responses of leukocytes. Based on observations that G protein-coupled receptors undergo heterologous desensitization, we have examined the ability of chemokines to also influence the perception of pain by cross-desensitizing opioid G protein-coupled receptors function in vitro and in vivo. We find that the chemotactic activities of both -and ␦-opioid receptors are desensitized following activation of the chemokine receptors CCR5, CCR2, CCR7, and CXCR4 but not of the CXCR1 or CXCR2 receptors. Furthermore, we also find that pretreatment with RAN-TES͞CCL5, the ligand for CCR1, and CCR5 or SDF-1␣͞CXCL12, the ligand for CXCR4, followed by opioid administration into the periaqueductal gray matter of the brain results in an increased rat tail flick response to a painful stimulus. Because chemokine administration into the periaqueductal gray matter inhibits opioidinduced analgesia, we propose that the activation of proinflammatory chemokine receptors down-regulates the analgesic functions of opioid receptors, and this enhances the perception of pain at inflammatory sites. O pioid and chemokine receptors are members of the G i protein-linked seven-transmembrane receptor family. These receptors, as well as the chemokine and endogenous opioid peptide ligands, are widely distributed in brain tissue and the periphery. Chemokines have been classified into four families: C, CC, CXC, and CX 3 C based on the position of conserved cysteines, and they interact with receptors designated CR1, CCR1-11, CXCR1-5, or CX 3 CR1, respectively (1). Three classes of receptors have been identified for the opioids, designated , , and ␦, and each of the opioid receptor genes expressed in brain tissue and immune cells has been cloned and sequenced (2-7).The -, -, and ␦-opioids are known to have inhibitory effects on both antibody and cellular immune responses (8, 9), natural killer cell activity (10), cytokine expression (11-13), and phagocytic activity (14), which may account for the decreased resistance to infections caused by morphine and heroin administration. Furthermore, pretreatment with opioids, including morphine, heroin, met-enkephalin, the selective -agonist ]enkephalin (DPDPE), leads to the inhibition of the chemotactic response of leukocytes to complement-derived chemotactic factors (15) and to the chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP-1␣)͞CCL3, regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES͞CCL5), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1)͞ CCL2, and IL-8͞CXCL8 (16). The latter results suggest that the activation of the -and ␦-opioid receptors leads to the desensitization of the CC chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) and CXC chemokine receptors CXCR1 and CXCR2. In fact, the latter two receptors are phosphorylated by prior administration of opioids. Moreover, the inhibition of CCL3 and CCL5 responses following opioid pretreatment is consistent with the desensitization of either CCR1 or CCR5, or both. This receptor crosstalk r...

Anoikis is programmed death of epithelial cells triggered by detachment from a basement membrane or extracellular matrix, and anoikis resistance is a critical step in metastasis. Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) have a high rate of metastasis in the first 3 years following diagnosis, and although TNBC cell lines are more resistant to anoikis than estrogen receptor positive lines, little is known regarding pathways that support anoikis resistance. Gene expression and metabolomic profiling of TNBC cells in forced suspension culture revealed multiple genes in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism upregulated by TNBC cells in suspension, including tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2). Increased production of kynurenine, a key metabolite of this pathway, by TNBC in suspension activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) transcriptional activity. Pharmacological inhibition or knockdown of TDO2 decreased kynurenine production, increased anoikis sensitivity, and inhibited proliferation, migration, and invasion. Likewise, AhR inhibition or knockdown also decreased proliferation, migration, and anchorage-independent growth. Mining publically available data, TDO2 was found to be higher with increasing grade, higher in estrogen receptor negative than positive breast cancer, and associated with shorter overall survival. This study reveals a TDO2-AhR signaling axis activated by TNBC cells in suspension in an NF-κB dependent manner, and suggests TDO2 inhibition as a targeted therapy for TNBC. Indeed, pharmacological inhibition of TDO2 activity decreased lung colonization in a preclinical model of TNBC.

Pain, a critical component of host defense, is one hallmark of the inflammatory response. We therefore hypothesized that pain might be exacerbated by proinflammatory chemokines. To test this hypothesis, CCR1 was cotransfected into human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells together with transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a cation channel required for certain types of thermal hyperalgesia. In these cells, capsaicin and anandamide induced Ca2+ influx mediated by TRPV1. When CCR1:TRPV1/HEK293 cells were pretreated with CCL3, the sensitivity of TRPV1, as indicated by the Ca2+ influx, was increased ≈3-fold. RT-PCR analysis showed that a spectrum of chemokine and cytokine receptors is expressed in rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Immunohistochemical staining of DRG showed that CCR1 is coexpressed with TRPV1 in >85% of small-diameter neurons. CCR1 on DRG neurons was functional, as demonstrated by CCL3-induced Ca2+ ion influx and PKC activation. Pretreatment with CCL3 enhanced the response of DRG neurons to capsaicin or anandamide. This sensitization was inhibited by pertussis toxin, U73122, or chelerythrine chloride, inhibitors of Gi-protein, phospholipase C, and protein kinase C, respectively. Intraplantar injection of mice with CCL3 decreased their hot-plate response latency. That a proinflammatory chemokine, by interacting with its receptor on small-diameter neurons, sensitizes TRPV1 reveals a previously undescribed mechanism of receptor cross-sensitization that may contribute to hyperalgesia during inflammation

Androgen receptor (AR) is expressed in 90% of estrogen receptor alpha positive (ER+) breast tumors, but its role in tumor growth and progression remains controversial. Use of two anti-androgens that inhibit AR nuclear localization, enzalutamide and MJC13, revealed that AR is required for maximum ER genomic binding. Here, a novel global examination of AR chromatin binding found that estradiol induced AR binding at unique sites compared to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Estradiol-induced AR binding sites were enriched for estrogen response elements and had significant overlap with ER binding sites. Furthermore, AR inhibition reduced baseline and estradiol-mediated proliferation in multiple ER+/AR+ breast cancer cell lines, and synergized with tamoxifen and fulvestrant. In vivo, enzalutamide significantly reduced viability of tamoxifen-resistant MCF7 xenograft tumors and an ER+/AR+ patient-derived model. Enzalutamide also reduced metastatic burden following cardiac injection. Lastly, in a comparison of ER+/AR+ primary tumors versus patient-matched local recurrences or distant metastases, AR expression was often maintained even when ER was reduced or absent. These data provide pre-clinical evidence that anti-androgens that inhibit AR nuclear localization affect both AR and ER, and are effective in combination with current breast cancer therapies. In addition, single agent efficacy may be possible in tumors resistant to traditional endocrine therapy, since clinical specimens of recurrent disease demonstrate AR expression in tumors with absent or refractory ER. Implications This study suggests that AR plays a previously-unrecognized role in supporting E2-mediated ER activity in ER+/AR+ breast cancer cells, and that enzalutamide may be an effective therapeutic in ER+/AR+ breast cancers.

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A substantial proportion of HIV-1-infected individuals are intravenous drug users (i.v.DUs) who abuse opiates. Opioids induce a number of immunomodulatory effects that may directly influence HIV-1 disease progression. In the present report, we have investigated the effect of opioids on the expression of the major HIV-1 coreceptors CXCR4 and CCR5. For these studies we have focused on opiates which are ligands for the mu-opioid receptor. Our results show that DAMGO, a selective mu-opioid agonist, increases CXCR4 and CCR5 expression in both CD3(+) lymphoblasts and CD14(+) monocytes three- to fivefold. Furthermore, DAMGO-induced elevation of HIV-1 coreceptor expression translates into enhanced replication of both X4 and R5 viral strains of HIV-1. We have confirmed the role of the mu-opioid receptor based on the ability of a mu-opioid receptor-selective antagonist to block the effects of DAMGO. We have also found that morphine enhances CXCR4 and CCR5 expression and subsequently increases both X4 and R5 HIV-1 infection. We suggest that the capacity of mu-opioids to increase HIV-1 coreceptor expression and replication may promote viral binding, trafficking of HIV-1-infected cells, and enhanced disease progression.