Many integral membrane proteins assemble to form oligomeric structures in biological membranes. In particular, seven-transmembrane helical G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) appear to self-assemble constitutively in membranes, but the mechanism and physiological role of this assembly are unknown. We developed and employed coarse-grain molecular dynamics (CGMD) models to investigate the molecular basis of how the physicochemical properties of the phospholipid bilayer membrane affect self-assembly of visual rhodopsin, a prototypical GPCR. The CGMD method is a mesoscopic simulation technique in which groups of atoms are mapped to particles on the basis of a four-to-one rule. This systematic reduction of the degrees of freedom allows for computationally efficient calculation of the structure and dynamics of molecular assemblies for larger time and length scales than accessible to atomistic models, providing here an unprecedented view of spontaneous protein assembly in biomembranes. Systems with up to 16 rhodopsin molecules at a protein-to-lipid ratio of 1:100 were simulated for time scales of up to 8 micros. The results obtained for four different phospholipid environments showed that localized adaptation of the membrane bilayer to the presence of receptors is reproducibly most pronounced near transmembrane helices 2, 4, and 7. This local membrane deformation appears to be a key factor defining the rate, extent, and orientational preference of protein-protein association. The implications of our findings are discussed within a framework of a generalized mechanism of membrane protein self-assembly.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are essential components of cellular signaling pathways. They are the targets of many current pharmaceuticals and are postulated to dimerize or oligomerize in cellular membranes in conjunction with their functional mechanisms. We demonstrate using fluorescence resonance energy transfer how association of rhodopsin occurs by long-range lipid-protein interactions due to geometrical forces, yielding greater receptor crowding. Constitutive association of rhodopsin is promoted by a reduction in membrane thickness (hydrophobic mismatch), but also by an increase in protein/lipid molar ratio, showing the importance of interactions extending well beyond a single annulus of boundary lipids. The fluorescence data correlate with the pK(a) for the MI-to-MII transition of rhodopsin, where deprotonation of the retinylidene Schiff base occurs in conjunction with helical movements leading to activation of the photoreceptor. A more dispersed membrane environment optimizes formation of the MII conformation that results in visual function. A flexible surface model explains both the dispersal and activation of rhodopsin in terms of bilayer curvature deformation (strain) and hydrophobic solvation energy. The bilayer stress is related to the lateral pressure profile in terms of the spontaneous curvature and associated bending rigidity. Transduction of the strain energy (frustration) of the bilayer drives protein oligomerization and conformational changes in a coupled manner. Our findings illuminate the physical principles of membrane protein association due to chemically nonspecific interactions in fluid lipid bilayers. Moreover, they yield a conceptual framework for understanding how the tightly regulated lipid compositions of cellular membranes influence their protein-mediated functions.

The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) rhodopsin self-assembles into supramolecular structures in native bilayers, but the structural determinants of receptor oligomerization are not known. We carried out multiple self-assembly coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMD) simulations of model membranes containing up to 64 molecules of the visual receptor rhodopsin over time scales reaching 100 μs. The simulations show strong preferential interaction modes between receptors. Two primary modes of receptor–receptor interactions are consistent with umbrella sampling (US)/potential of mean force (PMF) calculations as a function of the distance between a pair of receptors. The preferential interfaces, involving helices (H) 1/8, 4/5 and 5, present no energy barrier to forming a very stable receptor dimer. Most notably the PMFs show that the preferred rhodopsin dimer exists in a tail-to-tail conformation, with the interface comprising transmembrane H1/H2 and amphipathic H8 at the extracellular and cytoplasmic surfaces, respectively. This dimer orientation is in line with earlier EM, X-ray, and crosslinking experiments of rhodopsin and other GPCRs. Less stable interfaces, involving H4 and H6, have a free energy barrier for desolvation (delipidation) of the interfaces and appear to be designed to stabilize “lubricated” (i.e., lipid coated) dimers. The overall CGMD strategy used here is general and can be applied to study the homo- and hetero-dimerization of GPCRs and other transmembrane proteins. Systematic extension of the work will deepen our understanding of the forces involved in the membrane organization of integral membrane proteins.

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Uveal melanomas are molecularly distinct from cutaneous melanomas and lack mutations in BRAF, NRAS, KIT, and NF1. Instead, they are characterized by activating mutations in GNAQ and GNA11, two highly homologous α subunits of Gαq/11 heterotrimeric G proteins, and in PLCB4 (phospholipase C β4), the downstream effector of Gαq signaling 1–3. We analyzed genomics data from 136 uveal melanoma samples and found a recurrent mutation in CYSLTR2 (cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 2) encoding a p.Leu129Gln substitution in 4 of 9 samples that lacked mutations in GNAQ, GNA11, and PLCB4 but in 0 of 127 samples that harbored mutations in these genes. The Leu129Gln CysLT2R mutant protein constitutively activates endogenous Gαq and is unresponsive to stimulation by leukotriene. Expression of Leu129Gln CysLT2R in melanocytes enforces expression of a melanocyte-lineage signature, drives phorbol ester–independent growth in vitro, and promotes tumorigenesis in vivo. Our findings implicate CYSLTR2 as a uveal melanoma oncogene and highlight the critical role of Gαq signaling in uveal melanoma pathogenesis.

Neural comparisons of bilateral sensory inputs are essential for visual depth perception and accurate localization of sounds in space. All animals, from single-cell prokaryotes to humans, orient themselves in response to environmental chemical stimuli, but the contribution of spatial integration of neural activity in olfaction remains unclear. We investigated this problem in Drosophila melanogaster larvae. Using high-resolution behavioral analysis, we studied the chemotaxis behavior of larvae with a single functional olfactory neuron on either the left or right side of the head, allowing us to examine unilateral or bilateral olfactory input. We developed new spectroscopic methods to create stable odorant gradients in which odor concentrations were experimentally measured. In these controlled environments, we observed that a single functional neuron provided sufficient information to permit larval chemotaxis. We found additional evidence that the overall accuracy of navigation is enhanced by the increase in the signal-to-noise ratio conferred by bilateral sensory input.

Summary Polar lipids must flip-flop rapidly across biological membranes to sustain cellular life [1, 2], but flipping is energetically costly [3] and it’s intrinsic rate is low. To overcome this problem, cells have membrane proteins that function as lipid transporters (flippases) to accelerate flipping to a physiologically relevant rate. Flippases that operate at the plasma membrane of eukaryotes, coupling ATP hydrolysis to unidirectional lipid flipping, have been defined at a molecular level [2]. On the other hand, ATP-independent bidirectional flippases that translocate lipids in biogenic compartments, e.g., the endoplasmic reticulum, and specialized membranes, e.g., photoreceptor discs [4, 5], have not been identified even though their activity has been recognized for more than 30 years [1]. Here we demonstrate that opsin is the ATP-independent phospholipid flippase of photoreceptor discs. We show that reconstitution of opsin into large unilamellar vesicles promotes rapid (τ <10 sec) flipping of phospholipid probes across the vesicle membrane. This is the first molecular identification of an ATP-independent phospholipid flippase in any system. It reveals an unexpected activity for opsin and, in conjunction with recently available structural information on this G-protein coupled receptor [6, 7], significantly advances our understanding of the mechanism of ATP-independent lipid flip-flop.

We demonstrate the site-directed incorporation of an IR-active amino acid, p-azido-l-phenylalanine (azidoF, 1), into the G protein–coupled receptor rhodopsin using amber codon suppression technology. The antisymmetric stretch vibration of the azido group absorbs at ~2,100 cm−1 in a clear spectral window and is sensitive to its electrostatic environment. We used FTIR difference spectroscopy to monitor the azido probe and show that the electrostatic environments of specific interhelical networks change during receptor activation.