Training specificity is considered important for strength training, although the functional and underpinning physiological adaptations to different types of training, including brief explosive contractions, are poorly understood. This study compared the effects of 12 wk of explosive-contraction (ECT, n = 13) vs. sustained-contraction (SCT, n = 16) strength training vs. control (n = 14) on the functional, neural, hypertrophic, and intrinsic contractile characteristics of healthy young men. Training involved 40 isometric knee extension repetitions (3 times/wk): contracting as fast and hard as possible for ∼1 s (ECT) or gradually increasing to 75% of maximum voluntary torque (MVT) before holding for 3 s (SCT). Torque and electromyography during maximum and explosive contractions, torque during evoked octet contractions, and total quadriceps muscle volume (QUADSVOL) were quantified pre and post training. MVT increased more after SCT than ECT [23 vs. 17%; effect size (ES) = 0.69], with similar increases in neural drive, but greater QUADSVOL changes after SCT (8.1 vs. 2.6%; ES = 0.74). ECT improved explosive torque at all time points (17-34%; 0.54 ≤ ES ≤ 0.76) because of increased neural drive (17-28%), whereas only late-phase explosive torque (150 ms, 12%; ES = 1.48) and corresponding neural drive (18%) increased after SCT. Changes in evoked torque indicated slowing of the contractile properties of the muscle-tendon unit after both training interventions. These results showed training-specific functional changes that appeared to be due to distinct neural and hypertrophic adaptations. ECT produced a wider range of functional adaptations than SCT, and given the lesser demands of ECT, this type of training provides a highly efficient means of increasing function.

Limited research examining the effect of taurine (TA) ingestion on human exercise performance exists. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of acute ingestion of 1,000 mg of TA on maximal 3-km time trial (3KTT) performance in trained middle-distance runners (MDR). Eight male MDR (mean ± SD: age 19.9 ± 1.2 years, body mass 69.4 ± 6.6 kg, height 180.5 ± 7.5 cm, 800 m personal best time 121.0 ± 5.3 s) completed TA and placebo (PL) trials 1 week apart in a double-blind, randomised, crossover designed study. Participants consumed TA or PL in capsule form on arrival at the laboratory followed by a 2-h ingestion period. At the end of the ingestion period, participants commenced a maximal simulated 3KTT on a treadmill. Capillary blood lactate was measured pre- and post-3KTT. Expired gas, heart rate (HR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and split times were measured at 500-m intervals during the 3KTT. Ingestion of TA significantly improved 3KTT performance (TA 646.6 ± 52.8 s and PL 658.5 ± 58.2 s) (p = 0.013) equating to a 1.7 % improvement (range 0.34-4.24 %). Relative oxygen uptake, HR, RPE and blood lactate did not differ between conditions (p = 0.803, 0.364, 0.760 and 0.302, respectively). Magnitude-based inference results assessing the likeliness of a beneficial influence of TA were 99.3 %. However, the mechanism responsible for this improved performance is unclear. TA's potential influence on exercise metabolism may involve interaction with the muscle membrane, the coordination or the force production capability of involved muscles. Further research employing more invasive techniques may elucidate TA's role in improving maximal endurance performance.

The influence of muscle morphology and strength characteristics on sprint running performance, especially at elite level, is unclear. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the differences in muscle volumes and strength between male elite sprinters, sub-elite sprinters, and untrained controls; and assess the relationships of muscle volumes and strength with sprint performance. Methods: Five elite sprinters (100 m seasons best [SBE100]: 10.10 ± 0.07 s), 26 sub-elite sprinters (SBE100: 10.80 ± 0.30s) and 11 untrained control participants underwent: 3T magnetic resonance imaging scans to determine the volume of 23 individual lower limb muscles/compartments and 5 functional muscle groups; and isometric strength assessment of lower body muscle groups. Results: Total lower body muscularity was distinct between the groups (controls < sub-elite +20% < elite +48%). The hip extensors exhibited the largest muscle group differences/relationships (elite, +32% absolute and +15% relative [per kg] volume vs sub-elite; explaining 31-48% of the variability in SBE100), whereas the plantarflexors showed no differences between sprint groups. Individual muscle differences showed pronounced anatomical specificity (elite vs sub-elite, absolute volume range +57% to -9%). Three hip muscles were consistently larger in elite vs. sub-elite (TFL, sartorius, gluteus maximus; absolute +45-57% and relative volume +25-37%), and gluteus maximus volume alone explained 34-44% of the variance in SBE100. Isometric strength of several muscle groups was greater in both sprint groups than controls, but similar for the sprint groups and not related to SBE100. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the pronounced inhomogeneity and anatomically specific muscularity required for fast sprinting, and provides novel, robust evidence that greater hip extensor and gluteus maximus volumes discriminate between elite and sub-elite sprinters and are strongly associated with sprinting performance.

(r = 0.461, P = 0.014), and pre-training MVT (r = −0.429, P = 0.023), but not ∆HEMG ANTAG (r = 0.298, P = 0.123) or ∆QUADSθ p (r = −0.207, P = 0.291). Multiple regression analysis revealed 59.9% of the total variance in ∆MVT after RT to be explained by ∆QEMG MVT (30.6%), ∆QUADS VOL (18.7%), and pre-training MVT (10.6%). Conclusions Changes in agonist neural drive, quadriceps muscle volume and pre-training strength combined to explain the majority of the variance in strength changes after knee extensor RT (~60%) and adaptations in agonist neural drive were the most important single predictor during this short-term intervention. Keywords