Deep neural networks have achieved impressive successes in fields ranging from object recognition to complex games such as Go. Navigation, however, remains a substantial challenge for artificial agents, with deep neural networks trained by reinforcement learning failing to rival the proficiency of mammalian spatial behaviour, which is underpinned by grid cells in the entorhinal cortex . Grid cells are thought to provide a multi-scale periodic representation that functions as a metric for coding space and is critical for integrating self-motion (path integration) and planning direct trajectories to goals (vector-based navigation). Here we set out to leverage the computational functions of grid cells to develop a deep reinforcement learning agent with mammal-like navigational abilities. We first trained a recurrent network to perform path integration, leading to the emergence of representations resembling grid cells, as well as other entorhinal cell types . We then showed that this representation provided an effective basis for an agent to locate goals in challenging, unfamiliar, and changeable environments-optimizing the primary objective of navigation through deep reinforcement learning. The performance of agents endowed with grid-like representations surpassed that of an expert human and comparison agents, with the metric quantities necessary for vector-based navigation derived from grid-like units within the network. Furthermore, grid-like representations enabled agents to conduct shortcut behaviours reminiscent of those performed by mammals. Our findings show that emergent grid-like representations furnish agents with a Euclidean spatial metric and associated vector operations, providing a foundation for proficient navigation. As such, our results support neuroscientific theories that see grid cells as critical for vector-based navigation, demonstrating that the latter can be combined with path-based strategies to support navigation in challenging environments.

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As a contribution toward the goal of adaptable, intelligent artificial limbs, this work introduces a continuous actor-critic reinforcement learning method for optimizing the control of multi-function myoelectric devices. Using a simulated upper-arm robotic prosthesis, we demonstrate how it is possible to derive successful limb controllers from myoelectric data using only a sparse human-delivered training signal, without requiring detailed knowledge about the task domain. This reinforcement-based machine learning framework is well suited for use by both patients and clinical staff, and may be easily adapted to different application domains and the needs of individual amputees. To our knowledge, this is the first my-oelectric control approach that facilitates the online learning of new amputee-specific motions based only on a one-dimensional (scalar) feedback signal provided by the user of the prosthesis.

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Recent decision-theoric planning algorithms are able to find optimal solutions in large problems, using Factored Markov Decision Processes (fmdps). However, these algorithms need a perfect knowledge of the structure of the problem. In this paper, we propose sdyna, a general framework for addressing large reinforcement learning problems by trial-and-error and with no initial knowledge of their structure. sdyna integrates incremental planning algorithms based on fmdps with supervised learning techniques building structured representations of the problem. We describe spiti, an instantiation of sdyna, that uses incremental decision tree induction to learn the structure of a problem combined with an incremental version of the Structured Value Iteration algorithm. We show that spiti can build a factored representation of a reinforcement learning problem and may improve the policy faster than tabular reinforcement learning algorithms by exploiting the generalization property of decision tree induction algorithms.

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