Fungal infections remain a threat due to the lack of broad spectrum fungal vaccines and protective antigens. Recent studies showed that attenuated Blastomyces dermatitidis confers protection via T cell recognition of an unknown, but conserved antigen. Using transgenic CD4+ T cells recognizing this antigen, we identify an amino acid determinant within the chaperone calnexin that is conserved across diverse fungal ascomycetes. Calnexin, typically an ER protein, also localizes to the surface of yeast, hyphae and spores. T cell epitope mapping unveiled a 13-residue sequence conserved across Ascomycota. Infection with divergent ascomycetes including dimorphic fungi, opportunistic molds, and the agent causing white nose syndrome in bats induces expansion of calnexin-specific CD4+ T cells. Vaccine delivery of calnexin in glucan particles induces fungal antigen-specific CD4+ T cell expansion and resistance to lethal challenge with multiple fungal pathogens. Thus, the immunogeneticity and conservation of calnexin make this fungal protein a promising vaccine target.

Three closely related thermally dimorphic pathogens are causal agents of major fungal diseases affecting humans in the Americas: blastomycosis, histoplasmosis and paracoccidioidomycosis. Here we report the genome sequence and analysis of four strains of the etiological agent of blastomycosis, Blastomyces, and two species of the related genus Emmonsia, typically pathogens of small mammals. Compared to related species, Blastomyces genomes are highly expanded, with long, often sharply demarcated tracts of low GC-content sequence. These GC-poor isochore-like regions are enriched for gypsy elements, are variable in total size between isolates, and are least expanded in the avirulent B. dermatitidis strain ER-3 as compared with the virulent B. gilchristii strain SLH14081. The lack of similar regions in related species suggests these isochore-like regions originated recently in the ancestor of the Blastomyces lineage. While gene content is highly conserved between Blastomyces and related fungi, we identified changes in copy number of genes potentially involved in host interaction, including proteases and characterized antigens. In addition, we studied gene expression changes of B. dermatitidis during the interaction of the infectious yeast form with macrophages and in a mouse model. Both experiments highlight a strong antioxidant defense response in Blastomyces, and upregulation of dioxygenases in vivo suggests that dioxide produced by antioxidants may be further utilized for amino acid metabolism. We identify a number of functional categories upregulated exclusively in vivo, such as secreted proteins, zinc acquisition proteins, and cysteine and tryptophan metabolism, which may include critical virulence factors missed before in in vitro studies. Across the dimorphic fungi, loss of certain zinc acquisition genes and differences in amino acid metabolism suggest unique adaptations of Blastomyces to its host environment. These results reveal the dynamics of genome evolution and of factors contributing to virulence in Blastomyces.

The dimorphic fungi Blastomyces dermatitidis and Histoplasma capsulatum cause systemic mycoses in humans and other animals. Forward genetic approaches to generating and screening mutants for biologically important phenotypes have been underutilized for these pathogens. The plant-transforming bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens was tested to determine whether it could transform these fungi and if the fate of transforming DNA was suited for use as an insertional mutagen. Yeast cells from both fungi and germinating conidia from B. dermatitidis were transformed via A. tumefaciens by using hygromycin resistance for selection. Transformation frequencies up to 1 per 100 yeast cells were obtained at high effector-to-target ratios of 3,000:1. B. dermatitidis and H. capsulatum ura5 lines were complemented with transfer DNA vectors expressing URA5 at efficiencies 5 to 10 times greater than those obtained using hygromycin selection. Southern blot analyses indicated that in 80% of transformants the transferred DNA was integrated into chromosomal DNA at single, unique sites in the genome. Progeny of B. dermatitidis transformants unexpectedly showed that a single round of colony growth under hygromycin selection or visible selection of transformants by lacZ expression generated homokaryotic progeny from multinucleate yeast. Theoretical analysis of random organelle sorting suggests that the majority of B. dermatitidis cells would be homokaryons after the ca. 20 generations necessary for colony formation. Taken together, the results demonstrate that A. tumefaciens efficiently transfers DNA into B. dermatitidis and H. capsulatum and has the properties necessary for use as an insertional mutagen in these fungi.

A mutant allele of the maize brittle-7 ( b t l ) locus, brittle-l-mutable (btl-m), was shown genetically and molecularly to result from the insertion of a defective Suppressor-mutator (dSpm) transposable element. An Spm-hybridizing restriction enzyme fragment, which cosegregates with the btl-m allele and is absent from wild-type revertants of btl-m, was identified and cloned. Non-Spm portions of it were used as probes to identify wild-type ( B t l ) cDNAs in an endosperm library. The 4.3-kb btl-m genomic clone contains a 3.3-kb dSpm, which is inserted in an exon and is composed of Spm termini flanking nonQpm sequences. RNA gel blot analyses, using a cloned Btl cDNA probe, indicated that Btl mRNA is present in the endosperm of developing kernels and is absent from embryo or leaf tissues. Several transcripts are produced by btl-m. The deduced translation product from a 1.7-kb Btl cDNA clone has an apparent plastid transit peptide at its amino terminus and sequence similarity to severa1 mitochondrial innerenvelope translocator proteins, suggesting a possible role in amyloplast membrane transport.

Blastomyces dermatitidis belongs to a group of human pathogenic fungi that exhibit thermal dimorphism. At 22°C, these fungi grow as mold that produce conidia or infectious particles, whereas at 37°C they convert to budding yeast. The ability to switch between these forms is essential for virulence in mammals and may enable these organisms to survive in the soil. To identify genes that regulate this phase transition, we used Agrobacterium tumefaciens to mutagenize B. dermatitidis conidia and screened transformants for defects in morphogenesis. We found that the GATA transcription factor SREB governs multiple fates in B. dermatitidis: phase transition from yeast to mold, cell growth at 22°C, and biosynthesis of siderophores under iron-replete conditions. Insertional and null mutants fail to convert to mold, do not accumulate significant biomass at 22°C, and are unable to suppress siderophore biosynthesis under iron-replete conditions. The defect in morphogenesis in the SREB mutant was independent of exogenous iron concentration, suggesting that SREB promotes the phase transition by altering the expression of genes that are unrelated to siderophore biosynthesis. Using bioinformatic and gene expression analyses, we identified candidate genes with upstream GATA sites whose expression is altered in the null mutant that may be direct or indirect targets of SREB and promote the phase transition. We conclude that SREB functions as a transcription factor that promotes morphogenesis and regulates siderophore biosynthesis. To our knowledge, this is the first gene identified that promotes the conversion from yeast to mold in the dimorphic fungi, and may shed light on environmental persistence of these pathogens.

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Individuals who are immunocompromised, including AIDS patients with few CD4 + T cells, are at increased risk for opportunistic fungal infections. The incidence of such infections is increasing worldwide, meaning that the need for antifungal vaccines is increasing. Although CD4 + T cells play a dominant role in resistance to many pathogenic fungal infections, we have previously shown that vaccination can induce protective antifungal CD8 + T cell immunity in the absence of CD4 + T cells. However, it has not been determined whether vaccine-induced antifungal CD8 + T cell memory can be maintained in the absence of CD4 + T cell help. Here, we have shown in a mouse model of vaccination against blastomycosis that antifungal memory CD8 + T cells are maintained in the absence of CD4 + T cells without loss of numbers or function for at least 6 months and that the cells protect against infection. Using a system that enabled us to induce and track antigen-specific, antifungal CD8 + T cells, we found that such cells were maintained for at least 5 months upon transfer into naive mice lacking both CD4 + T cells and persistent fungal antigen. Additionally, fungal vaccination induced a profile of transcription factors functionally linked with persistent memory in CD8 + T cells. Thus, unlike bacteria and viruses, fungi elicit long-term CD8 + T cell memory that is maintained without CD4 + T cell help or persistent antigen. This has implications for the development of novel antifungal vaccine strategies effective in immunocompromised patients.

Systemic fungal infections trigger marked immune-regulatory disturbances, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. We report that the pathogenic yeast of Blastomyces dermatitidis elaborate dipeptidylpeptidase IVA (DppIVA), a close mimic of the mammalian ectopeptidase CD26, which modulates critical aspects of hematopoiesis. We show that, like the mammalian enzyme, fungal DppIVA cleaved C-C chemokines and GM-CSF. Yeast producing DppIVA crippled the recruitment and differentiation of monocytes, and prevented phagocyte activation and ROS production. Silencing fungal DppIVA gene expression curtailed virulence and restored recruitment of CCR2+ monocytes, generation of TipDC, and phagocyte killing of yeast. Pharmacological blockade of DppIVA restored leukocyte effector functions and stemmed infection, while addition of recombinant DppIVA to gene-silenced yeast enabled them to evade leukocyte defense. Thus, fungal DppIVA mediates immune-regulatory disturbances that underlie invasive fungal disease. These findings reveal of form of molecular piracy by a broadly conserved aminopeptidase during disease pathogenesis.