In the search for new cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) selective inhibitors, the inhibitory effects of naturally occurring fatty acids and some of their structural derivatives on COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis were investigated. Among these fatty acids, linoleic acid (LA), alpha-linolenic acid (alpha-LNA), myristic acid, and palmitic acid were isolated from a CH(2)Cl(2) extract of the plant Plantago major by bioassay-guided fractionation. Inhibitory effects of other natural, structurally related fatty acids were also investigated: stearic acid, oleic acid, pentadecanoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Further, the inhibitory effects of these compounds on COX-2- and COX-1-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis was compared with the inhibition of some synthesized analogues of EPA and DHA with ether or thioether functions. The most potent COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis inhibitor was all-(Z)-5-thia-8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid (2), followed by EPA, DHA, alpha-LNA, LA, (7E,11Z,14Z,17Z)-5-thiaeicosa-7,11,14,17-tetraenoic acid, all-(Z)-3-thia-6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid, and (5E,9Z,12Z,15Z,18Z)-3-oxaheneicosa-5,9,12,15,18-pentaenoic acid, with IC(50) values ranging from 3.9 to180 microM. The modified compound 2 and alpha-LNA were most selective toward COX-2, with COX-2/COX-1 ratios of 0.2 and 0.1, respectively. This study shows that several of the natural fatty acids as well as all of the semisynthetic thioether-containing fatty acids inhibited COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis, where alpha-LNA and compound 2 showed selectivity toward COX-2.

A hexane extract of Plantago major was investigated by bioactivity-directed fractionation, using an in vitro cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis inhibition assay, and resulted in the isolation of ursolic acid (1). This triterpenoid showed a significant COX-2 inhibitory effect, directly on the enzyme activity, with an IC50 value of 130 microM and a COX-2/COX-1 selectivity ratio of 0.6. The structural isomer oleanolic acid (2) was found to be less active than 1, with an IC50 value of 295 microM, but showed a similar selectivity ratio (0.8). Furthermore, no significant inhibition on COX-2 or COX-1 was observed by the triterpenoid, 18beta-glycyrrhetinic acid (3). The direct inhibitory effect of 1 and 2 on COX-2 catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis increased with preincubation, indicating a time-dependent inhibition, while the effect on COX-1 was found to be independent of preincubation time.

A radiochemical enzyme assay for studying cyclooxygenase (COX)-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis in vitro was optimized with respect to both COX-1 and COX-2 activity. The assay can be used to assess the relative selectivity of plant-derived inhibitors on COX-1 and COX-2 Assay conditions were optimized for both enzymes with respect to concentration of cofactors (l-epinephrine, reduced glutathione, and hematin), activation time (enzyme and cofactors), reaction time, and pH. Moreover, the kinetic parameters, Km and Kcat, of both enzymes were estimated. Five COX inhibitors were used to validate the assay, indomethacin, aspirin, naproxen, ibuprofen, and the arylsulfonamide NS-398, all with different COX selectivity and time dependency. Time-dependent inhibition was determined by comparing the inhibition, with and without preincubation of enzyme and inhibitor. Two flavonoids, (+)-catechin and quercitrin, were examined with respect to inhibition of COX-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis. (+)-Catechin showed equal inhibitory effects on the two enzymes. Quercitrin was found to be inactive toward both COX-1- and COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis. The optimization procedure resulted in a considerable reduction of the amount of enzyme required for adequate prostglandin biosynthesis and a reliable method suited to evaluate natural products on inhibition of COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin biosynthesis, as well as on COX-1.

A rapid semi-homogeneous cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzymatic assay using scintillation proximity assay (SPA) technology was developed, and 49 ubiquitous plant secondary metabolites were screened for inhibition of COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) biosynthesis. Assay conditions were optimized with respect to reaction time, amount of antibody, radiolabeled PGE(2), and SPA beads, and the kinetic parameter, K(m), was estimated. The assay was validated with two natural triterpenoids, ursolic and oleanolic acid, known to inhibit COX-2, as well as with four synthetic COX inhibitors, NS-398, rofecoxib, indomethacin, and aspirin. Plant metabolites of different biosynthetic origin representing several substance classes, including alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, phenylpropanes, steroids, and terpenes, were screened for inhibition of COX-2-catalyzed PGE(2) production. Of these 49 plant metabolites, eugenol, pyrogallol, and cinnamaldehyde (with IC(50) values of 129, 144, and 245 microM, respectively) were found to inhibit COX-2. This study showed that a COX-2-catalyzed PGE(2) assay using SPA is suitable for screening natural compounds with respect to COX-2 inhibition.