Claudin proteins form a large family of integral membrane proteins crucial for tight junction formation and function. Our previous studies have revealed that claudin-3 and claudin-4 proteins are highly overexpressed in ovarian cancer. To clarify the roles of claudins in ovarian tumorigenesis, we have generated human ovarian surface epithelial (HOSE) cells constitutively expressing wild-type claudin-3 and claudin-4. Expression of these claudins in HOSE cells increased cell invasion and motility as measured by Boyden chamber assays and wound-healing experiments. Conversely, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of claudin-3 and claudin-4 expression in ovarian cancer cell lines reduced invasion. Claudin expression also increased cell survival in HOSE cells but did not significantly affect cell proliferation. Moreover, the claudin-expressing ovarian epithelial cells were found to have increased matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity indicating that claudin-mediated increased invasion might be mediated through the activation of MMP proteins. However, siRNA inactivation of claudins in ovarian cancer cell lines did not have a significant effect on the high endogenous MMP-2 activity present in these cells, showing that malignant cells have alternative or additional pathways to fully activate MMP-2. Taken together, our results suggest that claudin overexpression may promote ovarian tumorigenesis and metastasis through increased invasion and survival of tumor cells. (Cancer Res 2005; 65(16): 7378-85)

Claudins are integral membrane proteins essential in the formation and function of tight junctions (TJs). Disruption of TJs, which have essential roles in cell permeability and polarity, is thought to contribute to epithelial tumorigenesis. Claudin-3 and -4 are frequently overexpressed in ovarian cancer, but the molecular pathways involved in the regulation of these proteins are unclear. Interestingly, several studies have demonstrated a role for phosphorylation in the regulation of TJ complexes, although evidence for claudin phosphorylation is scarce. Here, we showed that claudin-3 and -4 can be phosphorylated in ovarian cancer cells. In vitro phosphorylation assays using glutathione S-transferase fusion constructs demonstrated that the C terminus of claudin-3 is an excellent substrate for cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Using site-directed mutagenesis, we identified a PKA phosphorylation site at amino acid 192 in the C terminus of claudin-3. Overexpression of the protein containing a T192D mutation, mimicking the phosphorylated state, resulted in a decrease in TJ strength in ovarian cancer cell line OVCA433. Our results suggest that claudin-3 phosphorylation by PKA, a kinase frequently activated in ovarian cancer, may provide a mechanism for the disruption of TJs in this cancer. In addition, our findings may have general implications for the regulation of TJs in normal epithelial cells.

Claudin proteins belong to a large family of transmembrane proteins essential to the formation and maintenance of tight junctions (TJs). In ovarian cancer, TJ protein claudin-4 is frequently overexpressed and may have roles in survival and invasion, but the molecular mechanisms underlying its regulation are poorly understood. In this report, we show that claudin-4 can be phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC) at Thr189 and Ser194 in ovarian cancer cells and overexpression of a claudin-4 mutant protein mimicking the phosphorylated state results in the disruption of the barrier function. Furthermore, upon phorbol ester-mediated PKC activation of OVCA433 cells, TJ strength is decreased and claudin-4 localization is altered. Analyses using PKC inhibitors and siRNA suggest that PKCε, an isoform typically expressed in ovarian cancer cells, may be important in the TPAmediated claudin-4 phosphorylation and weakening of the TJs. Furthermore, immunofluorescence studies showed that claudin-4 and PKCε are co-localized at the TJs in these cells. The modulation of claudin-4 activity by PKCε may not only provide a mechanism for disrupting TJ function in ovarian cancer, but may also be important in the regulation of TJ function in normal epithelial cells.

The actin-binding protein filamin A (FLNa) is associated with diverse cellular processes such as cell motility and signaling through its scaffolding properties. Here we examine the effect of FLNa on the regulation of signaling pathways that control the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The lack of FLNa in human M2 melanoma cells was associated with constitutive and phorbol ester-induced expression and secretion of active MMP-9 in the absence of MMP-2 up-regulation. M2 cells displayed stronger MMP-9 production and activity than their M2A7 counterparts where FLNa had been stably reintroduced. Using an MMP-9 promoter construct (pMMP-9-Luc), in vitro kinase assays, and genetic and pharmacological approaches, we demonstrate that FLNa mediated transcriptional down-regulation of pMMP-9-Luc by suppressing the constitutive hyperactivity of the Ras/MAPK extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascade. Experimental evidence indicated that this phenomenon was associated with destabilization and ubiquitylation of Ras-GRF1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor that activates H-Ras by facilitating the release of GDP. Ectopic expression of Ras-GRF1 was accompanied by ERK activation and elevated levels of MMP-9 in M2A7 cells, whereas a catalytically inactive dominant negative Ras-GRF1, which prevented ERK activation, reduced MMP-9 expression in M2 cells. Our results indicate that expression of FLNa regulates constitutive activation of the Ras/ERK pathway partly through a Ras-GRF1 mechanism to modulate the production of MMP-9.Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 5 play a crucial role in degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) associated not only with normal growth and development but also with various pathological conditions such as tumor invasion and angiogenesis (1). Melanoma progression, as in many other cancers, is associated with invasion into surrounding tissues, which depends on MMP-mediated proteolytic degradation of the basement membrane and ECM. Among its members, the 72-kDa gelatinase A (MMP-2) and 92-kDa gelatinase B (MMP-9) are thought to be key enzymes for degrading type IV collagen, a major component of the basement membrane. Contributions of these enzymes in both physiological and pathophysiological processes such as tumor cell invasion and metastasis have been well documented (2-6). Although the recent work of Bartolome et al. (7) shows that MMP-2 is the most important contributor to melanoma cell invasion mediated by the chemokine CXCL12, others have found that MMP-9 is predominantly expressed by advanced stage melanoma cells and could have prognostic value in identifying patients at high risk of melanoma progression (8 -11). The expression of MMP-9 can be induced by a variety of mitogens, including epidermal growth factor (EGF), tumor necrosis factor ␣ and phorbol esters. There are a number of transcription factors that bind in the upstream regulatory region of the MMP-9 gene, which helps explain the multiple mechanisms of regulation of MMP-9 gene expression in tumor cell lines (12, 13). Stimulu...

AcKnowleDgeMenTSWe thank Dr. Ashani Weeraratna and the members of our laboratory for useful comments on the manuscript. This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute on Aging. Research PaperRegulation of the CLDN3 Gene in Ovarian Cancer Cells AbSTrAcTThe claudin (CLDN) genes encode a family of proteins involved in the formation and function of tight junctions. CLDN gene expression is frequently altered in several human cancers, and in particular, CLDN3 and CLDN4 are commonly overexpressed in ovarian cancer. However, the mechanisms leading to the deregulation of these genes in cancer remain unclear. In the present study, we have examined the CLDN3 promoter and have identified a minimal region containing an Sp1 site crucial for its activity. In addition, we find that the CLDN3 promoter is regulated through epigenetic processes. Cells that express high levels of CLDN3 exhibit low DNA methylation and high histone H3 acetylation of the critical CLDN3 promoter region, and the reverse is observed in cells that do not express this gene. CLDN3-negative cells can be induced to express CLDN3 through treatment with DNA methyltransferase or histone deacetylase inhibitors. Interestingly, in vitro binding experiments, as well as chip assays show that Sp1 binds the unmethylated promoter much more efficiently, providing a mechanism for CLDN3 silencing in non-expressing cells. Finally, siRNA-mediated knockdown of Sp1 led to a significant decrease of CLDN3 expression at both the mRNA and protein levels, demonstrating a crucial role for this transcription factor in the regulation of CLDN3. Our data provide a basis for CLDN3 expression in ovarian cancer cells, as well as a mechanism for the silencing of this promoter in tumors lacking expression of claudin-3.

Epidemiological studies have shown that the regular use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) drugs is associated with a reduced risk of various cancers. In addition, in vitro and experiments in mouse models have demonstrated that NSAIDs decrease tumor initiation and/or progression of several cancers. However, there are limited preclinical studies investigating the effects of NSAIDs in ovarian cancer. Here, we have studied the effects of two NSAIDs, diclofenac and indomethacin, in ovarian cancer cell lines and in a xenograft mouse model. Diclofenac and indomethacin treatment decreased cell growth by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In addition, diclofenac and indomethacin reduced tumor volume in a xenograft model of ovarian cancer. To identify possible molecular pathways mediating the effects of NSAID treatment in ovarian cancer, we performed microarray analysis of ovarian cancer cells treated with indomethacin or diclofenac. Interestingly, several of the genes found downregulated following diclofenac or indomethacin treatment are transcriptional target genes of E2F1. E2F1 was downregulated at the mRNA and protein level upon treatment with diclofenac and indomethacin, and overexpression of E2F1 rescued cells from the growth inhibitory effects of diclofenac and indomethacin. In conclusion, NSAIDs diclofenac and indomethacin exert an anti-proliferative effect in ovarian cancer in vitro and in vivo and the effects of NSAIDs may be mediated, in part, by downregulation of E2F1.

No abstract

No abstract