Wildlife attacks on people in and around protected areas have become one of the main challenges for wildlife management authorities. We assessed all correlates of wildlife attacks during 2003–2013 in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal. We used data from various sources (discussion with stakeholders, field observations, questionnaire surveys). Wildlife attacks were significantly correlated to factors such as site, season and time, activity, gender and awareness. Moreover, 89% of recorded attacks occurred outside the Park. The number of attacks fluctuated widely and patterns of attacks were significantly uneven across seasons and months. Of the 87% of attacks that occurred during the day, 63% occurred in the morning. Most victims were male and c. 45% of attacks occurred when people were collecting forest resources or working on croplands. Attacks were carried out predominantly by rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (38%), tigers Panthera tigris (21%), sloth bears Melursus ursinus (18%), elephants Elephas maximus (9%) and wild boar Sus scrofa (8%). The people attacked lived close to the Park, depended on farming for their livelihoods, and had little knowledge of animal behaviour. Attacks can be mitigated through proper management of habitats inside the Park and raising awareness of wildlife behaviour among local people. We recommend establishing a participatory emergency rescue team to deal with problematic animals in high-risk areas.

This study has assessed patterns and consequences of park revenue sharing and implementation effectiveness to reduce park-people conflict in the Buffer Zone of Chitwan National Park. To explore programme implementation practice and consequences, two-thirds (n=14) of user committees were selected from the four management sectors. From the sampled committees, a questionnaire survey was randomly taken from user groups (n=100) to collect income and expenditure data. The revenue disbursement trends were favoured in community development works (roads, community buildings and schools) than conflict reduction issues. Fourty-two per cent of the total budget was allocated to infrastructures development, which was followed by conservation and conflict management (35%) and education (9%). Only a small amount of the budget was allocated to alternative energy, construction of animal preventive infrastructures to control wild-animals entering farmland and settlement, and provisions for wildlife damage compensation schemes. A certain part of the revenue should be allocated to wildlife victims. Furthermore, the process of providing relief funds should be shortened and simplified.

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The food habit of the snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is not always according to the availability of its prey species. The aim of the study was to estimate wild prey densities in Shey-Phoksundo National Park in relation to diet composition. In addition, the study sought to determine livestock depredation status and its frequency of occurrence in the diet of snow leopards. Population density of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) was estimated by vantage point count methods. Densities of other wild prey species were estimated through line transect methods and analyzed via the DISTANCE 6.0 program. Household surveys (n=250) were conducted to determine livestock numbers and frequency of depredation. Scats (n=40) were analyzed through micro histolysis to determine the diet composition of snow leopards. Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana) had the highest density (132.6 animals/ km2), while blue sheep had a density of 2.3 animals/ km2. Most local inhabitants were subsistence farmers, many dependent upon local livestock breeds, with an average holding of 32.6 animals/ household. There was a loss of 3.6 animals/ household annually, with a total depredation rate of 11.1%. Annual loss to snow leopards averaged 1.6 animals/ household and this was the major source of mortality. Blue sheep was the major prey item, with a 30% occurrence in the snow leopard diet. Among the livestock, sheep was the major prey item with a 15% frequency of occurrence in the scat. Food habits of snow leopard were independent of the density of its prey species; there was no proportional relationship between the prey density and the diet of snow leopards.

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Population growth forces the human community to expand into the natural habitats of wild animals. Their efforts to use natural sources often collide with wildlife attacks. These animals do not only protect their natural environment, but in the face of losing the potential food sources, they also penetrate in human settlements. The research was situated in the Chitwan National Park (CNP) in Nepal, and the aim of this study was to investigate possible geospatial connections between attacks of all kinds of animals on humans in the CNP and its surroundings between 2003 and 2013. The patterns of attacks were significantly uneven across the months, and 89% of attacks occurred outside the park. In total, 74% attacks occurred in the buffer zone forests and croplands within 1 km from the park. There was a strong positive correlation among the number of victims for all attacking animals with a maximum of one victim per 4 km2, except elephant and wild boar. The density of bear victims was higher where the tiger and rhino victims were lower, e.g., in the Madi valley. The data collected during this period did not show any signs of spatial autocorrelation. The calculated magnitude per unit area using the kernel density, together with purpose-defined land use groups, were used to determine five risk zones of wildlife attacks. In conclusion, it was found that the riskiest areas were locations near the forest that were covered by agricultural land and inhabited by humans. Our research results can support any local spatial decision-making processes for improving the co-existence of natural protection in the park and the safety of human communities living in its vicinity.

Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the striking symbol as well as an indicator of intact eco-regions of high mountains it inhabits. Despite the advancement in new methods, scholars argue that signs are still a reliable indicator for the purpose of habitat use study of snow leopards. The relative abundance of snow leopard and its major prey species such as blue sheep (Pseudois nayar) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the Chhekampar Village Development Committee within the Tsum Valley of the Manaslu Conservation Area was determined by sign survey using Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) and block survey using Vantage Point Method, respectively. We also assessed human snow leopard conflict through household and key informant survey. The encounter rate of snow leopard signs were 3.57/km on an average, indicating low abundance, whereas prey species such as blue sheep and Himalayan tahr had 3.8 and 1.8 animals/ km 2 , respectively. The livestock depredation rate was 1.29% with snow leopard accounting to only 0.32% of the total. Due to the low abundance of snow leopard but sufficient number of large-sized wild prey species, livestock predation by snow leopard was minimum, and therefore, the local people had positive perception towards snow leopard conservation. Though the present situation including the local religious tradition and social norms is supportive in conservation of snow leopard, it may not sustain unless incentive programs are encouraged timely..