ABSTRACT. This study focuses on the resonance strategies of Sámi reindeer herders in four reindeer-herding cooperatives in northernmost Finland in climatically extreme years, specifically those occurring during the period 1970 -2007. "Resonance" is an instinctive and indwelling reaction of a herder to a specific change (in contrast to coping, which is a more general response). The study is based on interviews with herders, field experiences, reindeer population statistics, and weather data. Before the 1960s, herders were able to deal with changing weather conditions by using intensive herding techniques and semi-tame reindeer. After the 1960s, reindeer became wilder because of the use of snowmobiles and more extensive herding techniques. The herders of the fell and forest cooperatives did not have sufficient means to prevent the serious reindeer losses in 1972 -74, which resulted from two years of hard snow and ice cover, hot summers, and the free ranging of loose herds. In each of the four cooperatives studied, most of the old siida herds were combined, and one solution to handling large, loose herds was to build fences between cooperatives. Since the 1990s, all four cooperatives have used diverse herding and pasture rotation strategies to cope with the critical winter months. The herding techniques and the human-reindeer relationship in the fell cooperatives have differed from those in the forest cooperatives mainly because of differences in pasture types, topography, and microclimate. The contrast can be seen particularly in snow and ice conditions, as open fell regions have a thin and compact snow cover, whereas forest regions typically have deep, soft snow. This research shows that the resonance strategies of Sámi reindeer herders are both heterogeneous and dynamic: herders change them constantly, drawing on both old and new techniques to deal with the variable weather.

ABSTRACT. The research examines reindeer feeding practices and herders' learning of them in three herding co-operatives in Finland: Kuukas in the south, Oraniemi in the central area, and Hammastunturi in the north. In the southern and central co-operatives, from the late 19th century until the Second World War (1939 -45), trees rich in lichens were cut to provide emergency forage. Harvesting lichens from trees and feeding associated with "tether calving" and "fence calving" have been common in the central and northern co-operatives. In the 1960s and 1970s, poor digging conditions resulted in reindeer losses, and pressure to feed reindeer increased further as forestry practices and overgrazing caused pastures to decline. Large-scale feeding entered daily practice in Kuukas and Oraniemi in the late 1980s and mid-1990s. The increased interaction between humans and reindeer brought about by regular feeding has made the animals tamer. In fact, they have adopted the permanent feeding areas as part of their pasture rotation. In Hammastunturi, herders entice reindeer from one pasture to another by providing supplementary forage. Knowledge about feeding developed in close concert with agriculture, and was transferred from south to north in the 1980s and 1990s. We argue that feeding practices draw on traditional ecological knowledge, which includes old ways of herding cattle. Herders' personal working practices and training are knowledge that is difficult to describe in words and must be learned by experience. Learning to feed reindeer requires not only familiarity with herding in practice (which implies profound knowledge about the animals, their nutrition, digestion, behavior, and handling), but also familiarity with the herding district and co-operation across generations.Key words: reindeer herding, winter feeding, lichen, Finland, boreal forest, interview, local knowledge, learning, anthropology, biology, multidisciplinary RÉSUMÉ. Cette étude porte sur les pratiques alimentaires du renne et sur l'apprentissage qu'en font les bergers au sein de trois coopératives de la Finlande : Kuukas dans le sud, Oraniemi dans la région du centre et Hammastunturi dans le nord. Dans les coopératives du sud et du centre, de la fin du XIX e siècle jusqu'à la Seconde Guerre mondiale (1939)(1940)(1941)(1942)(1943)(1944)(1945), on coupait des arbres riches en lichen pour servir de fourrage d'urgence. La récolte du lichen des arbres et l'affouragement lié au «vêlage en laisse» et au «vêlage en enclos» sont courants dans les coopératives du centre et du nord. Dans les années 1960 et 1970, les mauvaises conditions de creusage se sont traduites par la perte de rennes, et la pression exercée pour faire manger les rennes a augmenté au fur et à mesure que les pratiques d'exploitation forestière et le surpâturage ont réduit la taille des pâturages. L'affouragement à grande échelle est devenu monnaie courante au quotidien dans les coopératives de Kuukas et d'Oraniemi vers la fin des années 1980 et le milieu des années 1990. L'interaction accrue e...

AbstractMountain birch forests in the northern areas of Sápmi, the Saami homeland, serve as pastures for semi-domesticated reindeer. Recent reindeer management of the area has, to date, proceeded with little involvement of reindeer herders or their knowledge. To get more in-depth understanding of recent changes, we present together herders’ knowledge and scientific knowledge concerning the impacts of herbivory and climate change on mountain birch forests in three Saami communities in Norway and in Finland. Most of the herders interviewed reported changes in weather during the preceding decades. Herders agreed that the canopy and understorey of mountain birch forests have changed. The observed transformations in the quality of pastures have increased the financial costs of reindeer husbandry. Our study demonstrates that herders have practical knowledge of the present state and recent changes of birch forests, and of the responses of reindeer caused by these. This knowledge generally coincides with scientific knowledge. We call for better integration of knowledge systems and a better protocol for co-production of knowledge as it relates to more adaptive future reindeer management regimes. Such integration will facilitate understanding of cultural adaptation within rapidly changing social-ecological systems in which sustainable reindeer husbandry continues to be an important livelihood.

The overall impacts of winter feeding, including the effects of both forage and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), were studied in an experiment in the Hammastunturi herding cooperative (68°N), Finland, with 300 reindeer in a sub-xeric heath forest (35 ha) during March/April 2009 and 2010. The feeding practices on the 50 plots were: (1) feeding with grass silage+hay with leftovers cleared in the spring; (2) feeding with grass silage+hay with leftovers not cleared; and (3) feeding with pellets. In addition, (4) unfenced and (5) fenced control plots were included, on which the reindeer were not fed. No invasive plant species introduced through grass silage+hay were observed on the plots. The coverage of Deschampsia flexuosa increased on grass silage+hay plots after the first winter, and both coverage and height of the grass increased after the second winter. The coverage of Dicranum sp. and Pleurozium schreberi was lower on plots where reindeer were fed with grass silage (leftover silage not cleared) vs. controls. Some dwarf shrubs, e.g., Calluna vulgaris, showed a similar response after the second winter. The N content of Empetrum nigrum was higher on grass silage plots (leftover silage not cleared) after the first winter vs. controls. After two winters, the N content of both E. nigrum and Vaccinium myrtillus was increased. Of the soil variables studied, C/N decreased on grass silage+hay plots vs. fenced controls. We conclude that even a moderate level of feeding may cause changes that can lead to a gradual shift from nutrient-poor heath forest towards a more nutrient-rich type

IntroductionGeometrid moths and semi-domesticated reindeer are both herbivores which feed on birch leaves in the subarctic mountain birch forests in northern Fennoscandia. The caterpillars of autumnal and winter moths have episodic outbreaks, which can occasionally lead to extensive defoliation of birch forests. Earlier studies have shown that reindeer have a negative effect on the regeneration of defoliated birches by grazing and browsing their seedlings and sprouts.Case descriptionWe interviewed 15 reindeer herders in the Kaldoaivi and Paistunturi herding co-operative in northernmost Finland in order to analyse their past, present and future views on the behaviour of moths and the growth of mountain birches. We investigate the behaviour of the two herbivores by combining the indigenous knowledge (IK) of Sámi herders with the results of relevant studies in biology and anthropology, applying niche construction theory (NCT) in doing so.Discussion and evaluationIn the first stage, the niche constructors (moths, reindeer, herders, mountain birch and other organisms) are looked upon as “equal constructors” of a shared niche. As changes unfold in their niche, their role changes from that of constructor to key constructor. The role and importance of niche constructors were different when nomadic pasture rotation was used than they are today under the herding co-operative system. Niche construction faced its most radical and permanent negative changes during the border closures that took place over the latter half of the 19th century. The large-scale nomadic life among the Sámi herders, who migrated between Finland and Norway, came to an end. This phase was followed by stationary herding, which diminished the possibilities of reindeer to look for various environmental affordances. Difficult snow conditions or birch defoliation caused by moth outbreaks made the situation worse than before. Eventually reindeer became key constructors, together with moth larvae, leading to negative ecological inheritance that forced herders to use new, adaptive herding practices.ConclusionsBoth the scientific data and the IK of herders highlight the roles of reindeer and herders as continuous key constructors of the focal niche, one which stands to be modified in more heterogenic ways than earlier due to global warming and hence will result in new ecological inheritance.