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Little is known about what design elements in digital learning games enhance learning; especially in the case of child audiences. This study examines the effects of a learning game’s visual design on perceived attractiveness and learning outcomes. We developed two visual designs for the game: one with supposedly high esthetic value and another with a low esthetic value. Participants (children between 9 and 11 years of age, N = 53) were randomly divided into two groups. Each group interacted with their assigned version for about 20 minutes and then evaluated its visual attractiveness without knowing about the other version. Then, they evaluated the attractiveness of the complementary version. As the next step, they evaluated both versions side‐by‐side. During the free‐choice period, children could continue playing one of the game versions or a different game. They clearly preferred the high esthetic version in evaluations (d > 0.86) and in the free‐choice period (62% preferred the high esthetic version of the target game), but this did not improve their learning outcomes (comprehension: d = –0.59; transfer: d = –0.16). Possible explanations of this effect are discussed in terms of cognitive load theory and cognitive‐affective theory of learning from media.

Anthropomorphizing graphical elements in multimedia learning materials improves learning outcomes. The reasons for enhanced learning are unclear. We extended a seminal anthropomorphism study in order to examine whether the effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes, both immediate and delayed, is caused by the anthropomorphized elements' effects on attention distribution or by elevated positive affective–motivational states. The study had a partial 3 × 2 design (the materials' graphics: schematic vs. black‐and‐white anthropomorphisms vs. colourful anthropomorphisms × eye tracker: present vs. absent). The participants were university students (N = 181). Unexpectedly, we found no significant effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes. Anthropomorphisms significantly affected attention distribution during initial fixations but not overall. Modest effect on enjoyment was found, but no such effect was detected as concerns flow and generalized positive affect. We also found that the eye tracker's mere presence had slight adverse effects on learners, but these effects did not compromise learning.

Despite the increased interest in gamification approaches, there is a lack of comparative studies that shed light on the applicability of these approaches in educational contexts. In this explorative study, with an experimental design, university learners ( N = 98) studied a complex process (i.e., how to brew beer) in a 2-hour-long computerized simulation. In the experimental condition, the simulation featured the following game design elements: game goals, increased freedom of choice, points, virtual currency, and praise (i.e., a gamified simulation). These elements were absent in the simulation versions used in the two control conditions. No differences in learning outcomes and intrinsic motivation variables between the gamified simulation and its nongamified versions were observed. The gamified simulation was perceived to be significantly easier than the nongamified versions ([Formula: see text] = 0.10; d = 0.74, 0.42). Of the game elements used in this study, the participants perceived most positively a clear, game-like goal. The findings are consistent with self-determination theory, cognitive-affective theory of learning from media, and cognitive load theory. The findings also support the emerging notion that caution should be applied when using gamification approaches in educational contexts.

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