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The goal of this paper is to introduce an adaptive load frequency control (LFC) technique for power systems. The concept of the proposed adaptive technique is built on the on-line tuning of the gain of an integral controller using Electro-Search optimization (ESO) supported by a modification called the 'balloon effect'. The main target is to regulate the frequency of isolated and interconnected power systems. The balloon effect is designed to obtain the input/output signals of the power system plant at any moment; then, these signals are utilized to calculate the value of the open loop transfer function of the plant at the same time. This will emphatically affect the specified objective function of the ESO approach and increase its sensitivity to and effect on system difficulties such as system step load changes, parameter uncertainties and the effect of the penetrations resulting from renewable sources. Delayed time resulting from the communication process between the area and control center is considered in the dynamic model of interconnected MGs, and nonlinearities, such as governor dead bands (GDBs) and generation rate constraints (GRCs), are included in the simulation model. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness and success of the proposed controller tuned by the ESO approach with a balloon effect and provide better performance of frequency regulation than a fixed controller, as well as other methods such as standard Jaya and ESO methods. INDEX TERMS Load frequency control, microgrid, electro-search technique, balloon effect, adaptive control.

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This research investigates a new coordination strategy for both isolated single-area and interconnected multi-area microgrids (MGs) using a modified virtual rotor-based derivative technique supported with Jaya optimizer based on balloon effect modulation (BE). Accordingly, the main concept of BE is to assist the classic Jaya to be more sensitive and trackable in the event of disturbances, as well as to provide optimum integral gain value on the secondary frequency controller adaptively for both suggested MGs. The proposed modified virtual rotor mechanism is consisting of virtual inertia and virtual damping that are added as a tertiary controller within proposed MGs considering full participation of the inverter-based energy storage systems. The proposed virtual rotor mechanism is consisting of virtual inertia and virtual damping that are added as a tertiary controller within proposed MGs to emulate the reduction in system inertia and the enhanced damping properties. Several nonlinearities were proposed in this work such as a dead band of governor, generation rate constraints, and communication time-delay are considered within the dynamic model of the suggested MGs. In addition, the proposed design of multi-area MGs takes the interval timevarying communication delays into account for stability conditions. In this study, A comparative study using unimodal (i.e., Sphere) and multimodal (i.e., Rastrigin) benchmark test functions are conducted to validate the proposed direct adaptive Jaya-based BE. Furthermore, Wilcoxon's rank-signed non-parametric statistical test using a pairwise comparison was performed at a 5 % risk level to judge whether the proposed algorithm output varies from those of the other algorithms in a statistically significant manner. Thence, the superiority and effectiveness of the proposed method have also been verified against a variety of other metaheuristics optimization techniques, including classic electro-search, particle swarm, multi-objective seagull, and Jaya optimizers. In addition, an operative performance is assessed against the conventional integral controller, coefficient diagram method, and classic Jaya with/without virtual inertia. The final findings emphasize the superiority of the proposed direct adaptive Jaya-based BE supported by a modified virtual rotor and state better performance and stability compared to existing controllers.INDEX TERMS multi-area microgrids, virtual damping, virtual inertia, Jaya technique, adaptive control, balloon effect, coefficient diagram method, frequency regulation, time-varying delay.