Three sets of meta-analyses examined gender effects on children's language use. Each set of analyses considered an aspect of speech that is considered to be gender typed: talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech. Statistically significant average effect sizes were obtained with all three language constructs. On average, girls were slightly more talkative and used more affiliative speech than did boys, whereas boys used more assertive speech than did girls. However, the average effect sizes were either negligible (talkativeness, d=0.11; assertive speech, d=0.11) or small (affiliative speech, d=0.26). Larger effect sizes were indicated for some language constructs depending on either the operational definition of the language measure, the method of recording, the child's age level, the interaction partner (adult or peer), group size, gender composition, observational setting, or type of activity. The results are interpreted in relation to social-developmental and social-constructionist approaches to gender; these views are presented as complementary--rather than competing--meta-theoretical viewpoints.
This research examined adolescents' gender identity in relation to the peer context and their self-concept. Participants were 229 adolescents who completed questionnaire measures of self-concept and multidimensional gender identity. Regression analysis indicated peer acceptance partially mediated the relation between self-perceived gender typicality and self-worth. Cluster analysis revealed four groups of adolescents with differing profiles of selfperceived gender typicality, felt peer pressure for gender conformity, and peer acceptance. Findings highlight the inherently social and contextual nature of gender identity. Also, the pathologizing of gender-nonconforming youth is discussed.The current study considered adolescents' gender identity in relation to the peer context and psychological adjustment. The study of adolescent and adult gender identity has largely emphasized the degree to which individuals adhere to culturally proscribed social-personality attributes (e.g., Bem, 1974;Spence & Helmreich, 1978). Although this approach has its merits, there are two notable limitations. First, gender identity is measured solely as an intrapsychic phenomenon, and therefore does not assess identity in relation to the social context. Second, a person's gender identity is defined from the researcher's frame of reference (i.e., in relation to specific feminine-and masculine-stereotyped attributes), and therefore does not consider how individuals construe the meaning of their own gender. Both of these limitations, however, are avoided by Egan and Perry's (2001) multidimensional model of gender identity. Their instrument includes individuals' perceptions of how typical they are for their gender JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE, 16(1), 91-103
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