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Historically, the poaching of wildlife was portrayed as a small-scale local activity in which only small numbers of wildlife would be smuggled illegally by collectors or opportunists. Nowadays, this image has changed: criminal networks are believed to be highly involved in wildlife trafficking, which has become a significant area of illicit activity. Even though wildlife trafficking has become accepted as a major area of crime and an important topic and criminologists have examined a variety of illegal wildlife markets, research that specifically focusses on the involvement of different criminal networks and their specific nature is lacking. The concept of a 'criminal network' or 'serious organized crime' is amorphousgetting used interchangeably and describes all crime that is structured rather than solely reflecting crime that fits within normative definitions of 'organized' crime. In reality, criminal networks are diverse. As such, we propose categories of criminal networks that are evidenced in the literature and within our own fieldwork: (1) organized crime groups (2) corporate crime groups and (3) disorganized criminal networks. Whereas there are instances when these groups act alone, this article will (also) discuss the overlap and interaction that occurs between our proposed categories and discuss the complicated nature of the involved criminal networks as well as predictions as to the future of these networks.

As wildlife trafficking or the illegal wildlife trade has taken a more prominent place on the global agenda, discussions are taking place as to how wildlife trafficking happens. An increased understanding has revealed that corruption is a key facilitator of this profitable and pervasive global black market, but limited research has explored exactly what that corruption looks like and how corruption enables wildlife to be trafficked. Furthermore, research shows that Asia, particularly China and Southeast Asia, are focal points for the supply and demand of certain species of wildlife. Through a literature-based investigation, this paper unpacks the role specific acts of corruption play in the trafficking of ivory, reptile skins and live reptiles from, through or to Asia. It is proposed that not only do individual corrupt acts enable wildlife trafficking to happen, but also that corrupted structures (the criminal justice system, and economic and political foundations) in some societies enable trafficking to happen and also increase the resilience of trafficking to reduction measures. In collating detailed data about the forms of corruption facilitating wildlife trafficking, the gaps in knowledge, and therefore the important areas for further research, become evident.

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The Illegal Trade of Raptors in the Russian FederationThroughout history, humans have used the resources available in the environment, specifically the wildlife, as a means of survival and a source of capital. The trade of such products is as ancient as the civilizations around the globe. The immense value of some wildlife and wildlife products has led and is leading to the overexploitation of those populations of plants and animals. Currently, such actions are a source of concern for conservation in conjunction with the call for sustainable use. This issue must also now receive attention from criminologists because of the criminal and structurally harmful elements of wildlife trade, for which evidence will be given within this paper.In order to decrease these destructive activities, governments have drafted some This possibly intentional oversight must be broached because of the large-scale impact that wildlife trafficking directly can have on our planet and the species involved, let alone the further political and economic issues it can affect through its connectedness with state corruption, terrorism, transnational, and organized crime, and other forms of illicit trade. Purpose of the StudyThe species that supply the various illegal wildlife trades are numerous and are found throughout the world. This article will use the illegal raptor trade in Russia Far East as a case study to highlight the criminal and harmful elements that are integral in this black market. Additionally, the aim of this paper is to fill part of the gap in knowledge about the illegal wildlife trade by discovering in the illegal trade of birds of prey who is involved; how it is occurring; and where the trade is taking place. To begin, the method of data collection will be summarized that was designed to fulfill these research aims. This is followed by a brief history of the raptor trade and falconry. Essential to a wildlife trafficking discussion is an overview of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, an international convention dedicated to wildlife trade. Next, the role of Russia within this trade is explored, as are the dynamics of the illegal trade of raptors. The discussion section will focus on how this illegal trade embodies three important structural harms -a danger to the environment, cruelty to animals, and a threat to human and national security because of this markets' ties to organized crime, transnational crime, corruption, and possibly terrorism. Finally, suggestions will be made as to how the illegal trade in raptors might be curbed. Illegal Raptor Trade 4 MethodsThere were three sources of data collection for this study. First, nineteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with NGO and government officials mostly in Russia, but with CITES and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as well. These interviews consisted of the original purposive sample of wildlife trade experts chosen for their knowledge of the illegal wildlife trade and the snowball sample that resu...

Since its inception, green criminology has highlighted, examined and analysed environmental degradation and destruction. The 'theft of nature' is both an example and a driver of illegal and 'lawful but awful' acts and omissions that degrade the environment. Even though this theft is widespread and sometimes well known, it persists because powerful actors put forward an influential narrative of denial that obstructs interventions. This paper explores the role of denial in two thefts of nature-biopiracy and climate change-and compares and contrasts the manifestations of denial that contribute to their continuation. We consider the 'appeal to higher loyalties' (economic interests over environmental concerns), and discuss the implications if such denial goes unchallenged and remains the central narrative.

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