A biocompatible hydrogel consisting of extracellular matrix (ECM) from human tendons is described as a potential scaffold for guided tissue regeneration and tissue engineering purposes. Lyophilized decellularized tendons were milled and enzymatically digested to form an ECM solution. The ECM solution properties are assessed by proteome analysis with mass spectrometry, and the material's rheological properties are determined as a function of frequency, temperature, and time. In vivo application of the gel in a rat model is assessed for remodeling and host cell repopulation. Histology for macrophage invasion, fibroblast repopulation, and nanoscale properties of the gel is assessed. Gel interaction with multipotent adipoderived stem cells (ASCs) is also addressed in vitro to assess possible cytotoxicity and its ability to act as a delivery vehicle for cells. Proteome analysis of the ECM-solution and gel mass spectroscopy identified the most abundant 150 proteins, of which two isoforms of collagen I represented more than 55% of the sample. Rheology showed that storage (G') and loss (G″) of the ECM solution were stable at room temperature but displayed sigmoidal increases after ∼15 min at 37°C, matching macroscopic observations of its thermo responsiveness. G' and G″ of the gel at 1 rad/s were 213.1±19.9 and 27.1±2.4 Pa, respectively. Electron microscopy revealed fiber alignment and good structural porosity in the gel, as well as invasion of cells in vivo. Histology also showed early CD68(+) macrophage invasion throughout the gel, followed by increasing numbers of fibroblast cells. ASCs mixed with the gel in vitro proliferated, indicating good biocompatibility. This ECM solution can be delivered percutaneously into a zone of tendon injury. After injection, the thermoresponsive behavior of the ECM solution allows it to polymerize and form a porous gel at body temperature. A supportive nanostructure of collagen fibers is established that conforms to the three-dimensional space of the defect. This hydrogel holds the distinctive composition specific for tendon ECM, where tissue-specific cues facilitate host cell infiltration and remodeling. The results presented indicate that injectable ECM materials from tendon may offer a promising alternative in the treatment of tendinopathies and acute tendon injuries.
Cadaveric tendon allografts form a readily available and underutilized source of graft material. Because of their material properties, allografts are biomechanically and biologically superior to synthetic scaffolds. However, before clinical use, allografts must undergo decellularization to reduce immunogenicity and oxidation to increase porosity, leaving a nonvital biostatic scaffold. Ex vivo seeding, or revitalization, is thought to hasten graft incorporation and stimulate intrinsic tendon healing, permitting early mobilization and return to function. In this study, we examined physical and biochemical augmentation methods, including scaffold surface scoring (physical) and rehydration of lyophilized scaffolds in serum (biochemical). Scaffolds were divided into four groups: (1) scored scaffolds, (2) lyophilized scaffolds rehydrated in fetal calf serum (FCS), (3) scaffolds both scored and rehydrated in FCS, and (4) control scaffolds. Scaffolds were reseeded with adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs). Reseeding efficacy was quantified by a live cell and total cell assays and qualified histologically with hematoxylin and eosin, live/dead and SYTO green nucleic acid stains, TUNEL apoptosis stains, procollagen stains, and transmission electron microscopy. Scaffold-seeded cell viability at up to 2 weeks in vitro and up to 4 weeks in vivo was demonstrated with bioluminescent imaging of scaffolds seeded with luciferase-positive ADSCs. The effect of seeding on scaffold biomechanical properties was demonstrated with evaluation of ultimate tensile stress (UTS) and an elastic modulus (EM). We found that scaffold surface scoring led to an increase in live and total cell attachment and penetration (MTS assay, p<0.001 and DNA assay, p=0.003, respectively). Histology confirmed greater total cell number in both construct core and surface in scored compared with unscored constructs. Cells reseeded on scored constructs displayed reduced apoptosis, persistent procollagen production, and had a similar ultrastructural relationship to the surrounding matrix as native tenocytes on transmission electron microscopy. Rehydration of lyophilized scaffolds in serum did not improve reseeding. Seeded constructs demonstrated greater UTS and EM than unseeded constructs. Scaffolds seeded with ADSC-luc2-eGFP demonstrated persistent viability for at least 2 weeks in vitro. In conclusion, tendon surface scoring increases surface and core reseeding in vitro and may be incorporated as a final step in allograft processing before clinical implantation.
Treatment with the tendon hydrogel significantly increases the ultimate failure load of tendons at the critical 4-week time point, and is a promising method for augmentation of tendon healing.
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