The mammalian nervous system constantly evaluates internal and environmental temperatures to maintain homeostasis and to avoid thermal extremes. Several members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of ion channels have been implicated as transducers of thermal stimuli, including TRPV1 and TRPV2, which are activated by heat, and TRPM8, which is activated by cold. Here we demonstrate that another member of the TRP family, TRPV4, previously described as a hypo-osmolarity-activated ion channel, also can be activated by heat. In response to warm temperatures, TRPV4 mediates large inward currents in Xenopus oocytes and both inward currents and calcium influx into human embryonic kidney 293 cells. In both cases these responses are observed at temperatures lower than those required to activate TRPV1 and can be inhibited reversibly by ruthenium red. Heat-evoked TRPV4-mediated responses are greater in hypo-osmotic solutions and reduced in hyperosmotic solutions. Consistent with these functional properties, we observed TRPV4 immunoreactivity in anterior hypothalamic structures involved in temperature sensation and the integration of thermal and osmotic information. Together, these data implicate TRPV4 as a possible transducer of warm stimuli within the hypothalamus.

Prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) and prostaglandin I 2 (PGI 2 ) are major inflammatory mediators that play important roles in pain sensation and hyperalgesia. The role of their receptors (EP and IP, respectively) in inflammation has been well documented, although the EP receptor subtypes involved in this process and the underlying cellular mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The capsaicin receptor TRPV1 is a nonselective cation channel expressed in sensory neurons and activated by various noxious stimuli. TRPV1 has been reported to be critical for inflammatory pain mediated through PKA-and PKC-dependent pathways. PGE 2 or PGI 2 increased or sensitized TRPV1 responses through EP 1 or IP receptors, respectively predominantly in a PKC-dependent manner in both HEK293 cells expressing TRPV1 and mouse DRG neurons. In the presence of PGE 2 or PGI 2 , the temperature threshold for TRPV1 activation was reduced below 35°C, so that temperatures near body temperature are sufficient to activate TRPV1.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), a cation channel responsive to hypotonicity, can also be activated by warm temperatures. Moreover, TRPV4Ϫ/Ϫ mice reportedly exhibit deficits in inflammation-induced thermal hyperalgesia. However, it is unknown whether TRPV4 or related transient receptor potential channels account for warmth perception under injury-free conditions. We therefore investigated the contribution of TRPV4 to thermosensation and thermoregulation in vivo. On a thermal gradient, TRPV4Ϫ/Ϫ mice selected warmer floor temperatures than wild-type littermates. In addition, whereas wild-type mice failed to discriminate between floor temperatures of 30 and 34°C, TRPV4Ϫ/Ϫ mice exhibited a strong preference for 34°C. TRPV4 Ϫ/Ϫ mice also exhibited prolonged withdrawal latencies during acute tail heating. TRPV4Ϫ/Ϫ and wild-type mice exhibited similar changes in behavior on a thermal gradient after paw inflammation. Circadian body temperature fluctuations and thermoregulation in a warm environment were also indistinguishable between genotypes. These results demonstrate that TRPV4 is required for normal thermal responsiveness in vivo.

The capsaicin receptor transient receptor potential V1 (TRPV1; also known as vanilloid receptor 1) is a sensory neuron-specific ion channel that serves as a polymodal detector of pain-producing chemical and physical stimuli. It has been reported that extracellular ATP potentiates the TRPV1 currents evoked by capsaicin or protons and reduces the temperature threshold for its activation through metabotropic P2Y receptors in a PKC-dependent pathway, suggesting that TRPV1 activation could trigger the sensation of pain at normal body temperature in the presence of ATP. Here, we show that ATP-induced thermal hyperalgesia was abolished in mice lacking TRPV1, suggesting the functional interaction between ATP and TRPV1 at a behavioral level. However, thermal hyperalgesia was preserved in P2Y1 receptor-deficient mice. Patch-clamp analyses using mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons indicated the involvement of P2Y2 rather than P2Y1 receptors. Coexpression of TRPV1 mRNA with P2Y2 mRNA, but not P2Y1 mRNA, was determined in the rat lumbar DRG using in situ hybridization histochemistry. These data indicate the importance of metabotropic P2Y2 receptors in nociception through TRPV1.

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The catalytic enantioselective meso-epoxide ring opening reaction with phenolic oxygen nucleophile (4-methoxyphenol) is described for the first time herein. This reaction was first found to be promoted by (R)-GaLB (Ga ) gallium, L ) lithium, B ) (R)-BINOL), giving a variety of epoxide opening products in good to high ee (67-93% ee). However, chemical yield was only modest (yield 31-75%), despite the use of more than 20 mol % GaLB. This was due to the undesired ligand exchange between BINOL and 4-methoxyphenol, which resulted in the decomplexation of GaLB. Application of various known chiral ligands such as 6,6′-bis((triethylsilyl)ethynyl)-BINOL and H 8 -BINOL were examined, but satisfactory results were not obtained. To overcome this problem a novel linked-BINOL containing coordinative oxygen atom in the linker has been developed. By linking two BINOL units in GaLB, the stability of the Ga-complex was greatly improved. Using 3-10 mol % (R,R)-Ga-Li-linked-BINOL complex, a variety of epoxide opening reactions were found to proceed smoothly, affording products in analogous ee (66-96% ee) and in much higher yield (yield 67-94%) compared to (R)-GaLB. The structure of the LiCl free Ga-Li-linked-BINOL complex was elucidated by X-ray analysis. This is the first X-ray data for an asymmetric catalyst containing gallium. The possible mechanism of the entitled reaction is also discussed, based on the X-ray structure of the Ga-complex.

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