We report a type of synaptic modulation that involves retrograde signaling from postsynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) to presynaptic cannabinoid receptors. Activation of mGluR subtype 1 (mGluR1) expressed in cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) reduced neurotransmitter release from excitatory climbing fibers. This required activation of G proteins but not Ca2+ elevation in postsynaptic PCs. This effect was occluded by a cannabinoid agonist and totally abolished by cannabinoid antagonists. Depolarization-induced Ca2+ transients in PCs also caused cannabinoid receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition. Thus, endocannabinoid production in PCs can be initiated by two distinct stimuli. Activation of mGluR1 by repetitive stimulation of parallel fibers, the other excitatory input to PCs, caused transient cannabinoid receptor-mediated depression of climbing fiber input. Our data highlight a signaling mechanism whereby activation of postsynaptic mGluR retrogradely influences presynaptic functions via endocannabinoid system.

Endocannabinoids work as retrograde messengers and contribute to short-term and long-term modulation of synaptic transmission via presynaptic cannabinoid receptors. It is generally accepted that the CB1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1) mediates the effects of endocannabinoid in inhibitory synapses. For excitatory synapses, however, contributions of CB1, "CB3," and some other unidentified receptors have been suggested. In the present study we used electrophysiological and immunohistochemical techniques and examined the type(s) of cannabinoid receptor functioning at hippocampal and cerebellar excitatory synapses. Our electrophysiological data clearly demonstrate the predominant contribution of CB1. At hippocampal excitatory synapses on pyramidal neurons the cannabinoid-induced synaptic suppression was reversed by a CB1-specific antagonist, N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide (AM251), and was absent in CB1 knock-out mice. At climbing fiber (CF) and parallel fiber (PF) synapses on cerebellar Purkinje cells the cannabinoid-dependent suppression was absent in CB1 knock-out mice. The presence of CB1 at presynaptic terminals was confirmed by immunohistochemical experiments with specific antibodies against CB1. In immunoelectron microscopy the densities of CB1-positive signals in hippocampal excitatory terminals and cerebellar PF terminals were much lower than in inhibitory terminals but were clearly higher than the background. Along the long axis of PFs, the CB1 was localized at a much higher density on the perisynaptic membrane than on the extrasynaptic and synaptic regions. In contrast, CB1 density was low in CF terminals and was not significantly higher than the background. Despite the discrepancy between the electrophysiological and morphological data for CB1 expression on CFs, these results collectively indicate that CB1 is responsible for cannabinoid-dependent suppression of excitatory transmission in the hippocampus and cerebellum.

2-Arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) is an endocannabinoid that is released from postsynaptic neurons, acts retrogradely on presynaptic cannabinoid receptor CB1, and induces short-and long-term suppression of transmitter release. To understand the mechanisms of the 2-AG-mediated retrograde modulation, we investigated subcellular localization of a major 2-AG biosynthetic enzyme, diacylglycerol lipase-␣ (DAGL␣), by using immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy in the mouse brain. In the cerebellum, DAGL␣ was predominantly expressed in Purkinje cells. DAGL␣ was detected on the dendritic surface and occasionally on the somatic surface, with a distal-to-proximal gradient from spiny branchlets toward somata. DAGL␣ was highly concentrated at the base of spine neck and also accumulated with much lower density on somatodendritic membrane around the spine neck. However, DAGL␣ was excluded from the main body of spine neck and head. In hippocampal pyramidal cells, DAGL␣ was also accumulated in spines. In contrast to the distribution in Purkinje cells, DAGL␣ was distributed in the spine head, neck, or both, whereas somatodendritic membrane was labeled very weakly. These results indicate that DAGL␣ is essentially targeted to postsynaptic spines in cerebellar and hippocampal neurons, but its fine distribution within and around spines is differently regulated between the two neurons. The preferential spine targeting should enable efficient 2-AG production on excitatory synaptic activity and its swift retrograde modulation onto nearby presynaptic terminals expressing CB1. Furthermore, different fine localization within and around spines suggests that the distance between postsynaptic 2-AG production site and presynaptic CB1 is differentially controlled depending on neuron types.

The cyanobacterium Nostoc commune is adapted to the terrestrial environment and has a cosmopolitan distribution. In this study, the role of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) in the desiccation tolerance of photosynthesis in N. commune was examined. Although photosynthetic O 2 evolution was not detected in desiccated colonies, the ability of the cells to evolve O 2 rapidly recovered after rehydration. The air-dried colonies contained approximately 10% (wt/wt) water, and field-isolated, natural colonies with EPS were highly water absorbent and were rapidly hydrated by atmospheric moisture. The cells embedded in EPS in Nostoc colonies were highly desiccation tolerant, and O 2 evolution was not damaged by air drying. Although N. commune was determined to be a mesophilic cyanobacterium, the cells with EPS were heat tolerant in a desiccated state. EPS could be removed from cells by homogenizing colonies with a blender and filtering with coarse filter paper. This treatment to remove EPS did not damage Nostoc cells or their ability to evolve O 2 , but O 2 evolution was significantly damaged by desiccation treatment of the EPS-depleted cells. Similar to the EPS-depleted cells, the laboratory culture strain KU002 had only small amount of EPS and was highly sensitive to desiccation. In the EPS-depleted cells, O 2 evolution was also sensitive to freeze-thaw treatment. These results strongly suggest that EPS of N. commune is crucial for the stress tolerance of photosynthesis during desiccation and during freezing and thawing.

The duplex-forming activity of an oligonucleotide has been photoregulated by making use of the isomerization of an azobenzene moiety in the side chain. When the azobenzene moiety is isomerized from the trans form to the cis form upon photoirradiation, the melting temperature of the duplex between the oligonucleotide and its complementary counterpart is significantly lowered, and the duplex is largely dissociated into two single-stranded oligonucleotides (shown schematically).

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Introduction Drug delivery systems (DDSs) are important for effective, safe, and convenient administration of drugs. pH- and ion-responsive polymers have been widely employed in DDS for site-specific drug release due to their abilities to exploit specific pH- or ion-gradients in the human body. Areas covered Having pH-sensitivity, cationic polymers can mask the taste of drugs and release drugs in the stomach by responding to gastric low pH. Anionic polymers responsive to intestinal high pH are used for preventing gastric degradation of drug, colon drug delivery and achieving high bioavailability of weak basic drugs. Tumor-targeted DDSs have been developed based on polymers with imidazole groups or poly(β-amino ester) responsive to tumoral low pH. Polymers with pH-sensitive chemical linkages, such as hydrazone, acetal, ortho ester and vinyl ester, pH-sensitive cell-penetrating peptides and cationic polymers undergoing pH-dependent protonation have been studied to utilize the pH gradient along the endocytic pathway for intracellular drug delivery. As ion-sensitive polymers, ion-exchange resins are frequently used for taste-masking, counterion-responsive drug release and sustained drug release. Polymers responding to ions in the saliva and gastrointestinal fluids are also used for controlled drug release in oral drug formulations. Expert opinion Stimuli-responsive DDSs are important for achieving site-specific and controlled drug release; however, intraindividual, interindividual and intercellular variations of pH should be considered when designing DDSs or drug products. Combination of polymers and other components, and deeper understanding of human physiology are important for development of pH- and ion-sensitive polymeric DDS products for patients.

Magnetic ferrites such as Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 are extensively used in a range of applications because they are inexpensive and chemically stable. Here we show that rhodium-substituted ε-Fe2O3, ε-RhxFe2−xO3 nanomagnets prepared by a nanoscale chemical synthesis using mesoporous silica as a template, exhibit a huge coercive field (Hc) of 27 kOe at room temperature. Furthermore, a crystallographically oriented sample recorded an Hc value of 31 kOe, which is the largest value among metal-oxide-based magnets and is comparable to those of rare-earth magnets. In addition, ε-RhxFe2−xO3 shows high frequency millimetre wave absorption up to 209 GHz. ε-Rh0.14Fe1.86O3 exhibits a rotation of the polarization plane of the propagated millimetre wave at 220 GHz, which is one of the promising carrier frequencies (the window of air) for millimetre wave wireless communications.