X-ray micro-computed tomography (X-ray micro-CT) has been applied to visualise ice crystal structures formed during freezing of a number of foods. Materials were frozen unidirectionally at )5°C and then freeze-dried to remove the ice crystal structure and leave voids that can be measured by the X-ray. The system reconstructs the 3-D image based on a set of 2-D images, and is capable of micrometre-scale visualisation. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterise the internal ice crystal microstructure of a range of frozen materials; meat, fish, chicken, potato, cheese and carrot. Results show the voids corresponding to the ice crystals formed within these materials at different directions to the heat flux and various axial positions. Electron microscopy of the same materials, both fresh and frozen at )5°C, indicates the same shape of voids seen by the tomographic technique. Ice crystal parameters such as size, area and width can be quantified by the technique. Ice crystals in carrot were larger than in the other materials, while cheese and potato had the lowest values. The ice crystal distribution of all the experimental materials varied with axial distance from cooling surface; the closer the measurement was to the cooling surface, the smaller the crystal size. The results demonstrate that X-ray micro-CT might be useful in the analysis of frozen foods.

ABSTRA ABSTRA ABSTRA ABSTRA ABSTRACT CT CT CT CT: A no : A no : A no : A no : A nov v v v vel technique el technique el technique el technique el technique, using an X-r , using an X-r , using an X-r , using an X-r , using an X-ray micr ay micr ay micr ay micr ay micro-computed tomogr o-computed tomogr o-computed tomogr o-computed tomogr o-computed tomography system (X-r aphy system (X-r aphy system (X-r aphy system (X-r aphy system (X-ray micr ay micr ay micr ay micr ay micro-CT system) o-CT system) o-CT system) o-CT system) o-CT system) has been developed for visualization of the two-(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) ice crystal structures formed has been developed for visualization of the two-(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) ice crystal structures formed has been developed for visualization of the two-(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) ice crystal structures formed has been developed for visualization of the two-(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) ice crystal structures formed has been developed for visualization of the two-(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) ice crystal structures formed during freezing. The system reconstructs all 3-D images based on a set of 2-D images obtained by multiple during freezing. The system reconstructs all 3-D images based on a set of 2-D images obtained by multiple during freezing. The system reconstructs all 3-D images based on a set of 2-D images obtained by multiple during freezing. The system reconstructs all 3-D images based on a set of 2-D images obtained by multiple during freezing. The system reconstructs all 3-D images based on a set of 2-D images obtained by multiple slicing of an X-ray shadow image. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterize the ice slicing of an X-ray shadow image. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterize the ice slicing of an X-ray shadow image. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterize the ice slicing of an X-ray shadow image. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterize the ice slicing of an X-ray shadow image. This study demonstrates the capability of the technique to characterize the ice crystal microstructure of mycoprotein products after freezing. Results are presented for the 2-D ice crystals crystal microstructure of mycoprotein products after freezing. Results are presented for the 2-D ice crystals crystal microstructure of mycoprotein products after freezing. Results are presented for the 2-D ice crystals crystal microstructure of mycoprotein products after freezing. Results are presented for the 2-D ice crystals crystal microstructure of mycoprotein products after freezing. Results are presented for the 2-D ice crystals formed within mycoprotein frozen at different rates. The method requires freeze-drying of the sample to remove formed within mycoprotein frozen at different rates. The method requires freeze-drying of the sample to remove formed within mycoprotein frozen at different rates. The method requires freeze-drying of t...

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The world’s population is expected to grow at an increasing rate, leading to increased food consumption and waste production. Even though food waste represents one of the most challenging economic and environmental issues of the 21st century, it also provides a vast array of valuable resources. To address the challenge, this study uses resource recovery from food waste to close the supply chain loop, which is the cornerstone of a circular economy. By applying the bibliometric review technique, trends and patterns in food waste and circular economy were studied. The analysis of frequent keywords in the field provided insights into further research directions. A Boolean search of the keywords in the Scopus database resulted in 288 articles, published between 2015 and 2021. Further screening of titles, keywords, and abstracts resulted in 155 journal articles. Bibliometric coupling, including authors’ co-citation data, co-occurrence, and the occurrence of keywords, was graphically mapped using VOSviewer software. From the analysis of the publications, eight broad themes emerged: (1) anaerobic digestion of food waste for circular economy creation; (2) food waste systems and life cycle assessments for circular economy; (3) bio-based circular economy approaches; (4) consumer behavior and attitudes toward circular economies; (5) food supply chains and food waste in a circular economy; (6) material flow analysis and sustainability; (7) challenges, policies, and practices to achieve circularity; and (8) circular economy and patterns of consumption. Based on the eight themes, we emphasize an urgent need to promote the collaboration of governments, the private sector, educational institutions, and researchers, who should combine efforts to promote, integrate and accelerate acceptance of circularity, which will potentially mitigate greenhouse emissions associated with food loss and waste. We also highlight an opportunity to encourage consumer acceptance of upcycled food in the food waste hierarchy. In addition, we deduce that there is a need to quantify food waste and emissions of greenhouse gases due to this waste along the food value chain; this is important as it is one pathway of examining the ‘food leaks’ along the food supply chain. This can then inform optimal strategies targeting specific areas of the food supply chain experiencing food leaks. Lastly, food wastage affects the entire globe; however, future studies and funding need to be channeled towards investigating the possibility of implementing circularity in developing countries.

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