The amount of ice present in clouds can affect cloud lifetime, precipitation and radiative properties 1,2 . The formation of ice in clouds is facilitated by the presence of airborne ice nucleating particles 1,2 . Sea spray is one of the major global sources of atmospheric particles, but it is unclear to what extent these particles are capable of nucleating ice 3-11 . Sea spray aerosol contains large amounts of organic material that is ejected into the atmosphere during bubble bursting at the organically enriched sea-air interface or sea surface microlayer [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] . Here we show that organic material in the sea surface microlayer nucleates ice under conditions relevant for mixed-phase cloud and high-altitude ice cloud formation. The ice nucleating material is likely biogenic and less than ~0.2 μm in size. We find that exudates separated from cells of the marine diatom T. Pseudonana nucleate ice and propose that organic material associated with phytoplankton cell exudates is a likely candidate for the observed ice nucleating ability of the microlayer samples. Global model simulations of marine organic aerosol in combination with our measurements suggest that marine organic material may be an important source of ice nucleating particles in remote marine environments such as the Southern Ocean, North Pacific and North Atlantic.Atmospheric ice nucleating particles (INPs) allow ice to nucleate heterogeneously at higher temperatures or lower relative humidity than is typical for homogeneous ice nucleation. Heterogeneous ice nucleation proceeds via different pathways depending on temperature and humidity. In low altitude mixed-phase clouds, INPs are commonly immersed in supercooled liquid droplets and freezing can occur on them at temperatures between -36 and 0°C 2 . At higher altitudes and lower temperatures (<-36°C) where cirrus clouds form, nucleation occurs below water saturation, proceeding by homogeneous, deposition or immersion-in-solution nucleation 1 . Understanding the sources of atmospheric INPs is important because they affect cloud lifetime, cloud albedo and precipitation 1,2 . Recent modelling work has shown that the ocean is potentially an important source of biogenic atmospheric INPs particularly in remote, high latitude regions 9,10 . However, it has never been directly shown that there is a source of atmospheric INPs associated with organic material found in marine waters or sea-spray aerosol.Organic material makes up a substantial fraction of sub-micron sea-spray aerosol and it is estimated that 10±5 Tg yr -1 of primary organic sub-micron aerosol is emitted from marine sources globally 12 . Rising bubbles scavenge surface active organic material from the water column at their interfaces and this process facilitates the formation of the organic enriched sea-air interface known as the sea surface microlayer (SML). This organic material is ejected into the atmosphere during bubble bursting resulting in sea spray aerosol containing similar organic material to that of the microlaye...

Abstract. Clouds composed of both ice particles and supercooled liquid water droplets exist at temperatures above ∼236 K. These mixed phase clouds, which strongly impact climate, are very sensitive to the presence of solid particles that can catalyse freezing. In this paper we describe experiments to determine the conditions at which the clay mineral kaolinite nucleates ice when immersed within water droplets. These are the first immersion mode experiments in which the ice nucleating ability of kaolinite has been determined as a function of clay surface area, cooling rate and also at constant temperatures. Water droplets containing a known amount of clay mineral were supported on a hydrophobic surface and cooled at rates of between 0.8 and 10 K min −1 or held at constant sub-zero temperatures. The time and temperature at which individual 10-50 µm diameter droplets froze were determined by optical microscopy. For a cooling rate of 10 K min −1 , the median nucleation temperature of 10-40 µm diameter droplets increased from close to the homogeneous nucleation limit (236 K) to 240.8 ± 0.6 K as the concentration of kaolinite in the droplets was increased from 0.005 wt% to 1 wt%. This data shows that the probability of freezing scales with surface area of the kaolinite inclusions. We also show that at a constant temperature the number of liquid droplets decreases exponentially as they freeze over time. The constant cooling rate experiments are consistent with the stochastic, singular and modified singular descriptions of heterogeneous nucleation; however, freezing during cooling and at constant temperature can be reconciled best with the stochastic approach. We report temperature dependent nucleation rate coefficients (nucleation events per unit Correspondence to: B. J. Murray (b.j.murray@leeds.ac.uk) time per unit area) for kaolinite and present a general parameterisation for immersion nucleation which may be suitable for cloud modelling once nucleation by other important ice nucleating species is quantified in the future.

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Rates of homogeneous nucleation of ice in micrometre-sized water droplets are reported. Measurements were made using a new system in which droplets were supported on a hydrophobic substrate and their phase was monitored using optical microscopy as they were cooled at a controlled rate. Our nucleation rates are in agreement, given the quoted uncertainties, with the most recent literature data. However, the level of uncertainty in the rate of homogeneous freezing remains unacceptable given the importance of homogeneous nucleation to cloud formation in the Earth's atmosphere. We go on to use the most recent thermodynamic data for cubic ice (the metastable phase thought to nucleate from supercooled water) to estimate the interfacial energy of the cubic ice-supercooled water interface. We estimate a value of 20.8 +/- 1.2 mJ m(-2) in the temperature range 234.9-236.7 K.

Abstract. Ice-nucleating particles (INPs) are known to affect the amount of ice in mixed-phase clouds, thereby influencing many of their properties. The atmospheric INP concentration changes by orders of magnitude from terrestrial to marine environments, which typically contain much lower concentrations. Many modelling studies use parameterizations for heterogeneous ice nucleation and cloud ice processes that do not account for this difference because they were developed based on INP measurements made predominantly in terrestrial environments without considering the aerosol composition. Errors in the assumed INP concentration will influence the simulated amount of ice in mixed-phase clouds, leading to errors in top-of-atmosphere radiative flux and ultimately the climate sensitivity of the model. Here we develop a global model of INP concentrations relevant for mixed-phase clouds based on laboratory and field measurements of ice nucleation by K-feldspar (an ice-active component of desert dust) and marine organic aerosols (from sea spray). The simulated global distribution of INP concentrations based on these two species agrees much better with currently available ambient measurements than when INP concentrations are assumed to depend only on temperature or particle size. Underestimation of INP concentrations in some terrestrial locations may be due to the neglect of INPs from other terrestrial sources. Our model indicates that, on a monthly average basis, desert dusts dominate the contribution to the INP population over much of the world, but marine organics become increasingly important over remote oceans and they dominate over the Southern Ocean. However, day-to-day variability is important. Because desert dust aerosol tends to be sporadic, marine organic aerosols dominate the INP population on many days per month over much of the mid- and high-latitude Northern Hemisphere. This study advances our understanding of which aerosol species need to be included in order to adequately describe the global and regional distribution of INPs in models, which will guide ice nucleation researchers on where to focus future laboratory and field work.

Abstract. In many clouds, the formation of ice requires the presence of particles capable of nucleating ice. Icenucleating particles (INPs) are rare in comparison to cloud condensation nuclei. However, the fact that only a small fraction of aerosol particles can nucleate ice means that detection and quantification of INPs is challenging. This is particularly true at temperatures above about − 20 • C since the population of particles capable of serving as INPs decreases dramatically with increasing temperature. In this paper, we describe an experimental technique in which droplets of microlitre volume containing ice-nucleating material are cooled down at a controlled rate and their freezing temperatures recorded. The advantage of using large droplet volumes is that the surface area per droplet is vastly larger than in experiments focused on single aerosol particles or cloud-sized droplets. This increases the probability of observing the effect of less common, but important, high-temperature INPs and therefore allows the quantification of their ice nucleation efficiency. The potential artefacts which could influence data from this experiment, and other similar experiments, are mitigated and discussed. Experimentally determined heterogeneous ice nucleation efficiencies for K-feldspar (microcline), kaolinite, chlorite, NX-illite, Snomax ® and silver iodide are presented.

Desert dust is one of the most important atmospheric ice‐nucleating aerosol species around the globe. However, there have been very few measurements of ice‐nucleating particle (INP) concentrations in dusty air close to desert sources. In this study we report the concentration of INPs in dust laden air over the tropical Atlantic within a few days' transport of one of the world's most important atmospheric sources of desert dust, the Sahara. These measurements were performed as part of the Ice in Clouds Experiment‐Dust campaign based in Cape Verde, during August 2015. INP concentrations active in the immersion mode, determined using a droplet‐on‐filter technique, ranged from around 102 m−3 at −12°C to around 105 m−3 at −23°C. There is about 2 orders of magnitude variability in INP concentration for a particular temperature, which is determined largely by the variability in atmospheric dust loading. These measurements were made at altitudes from 30 to 3,500 m in air containing a range of dust loadings. The ice active site density (ns) for desert dust dominated aerosol derived from our measurements agrees with several laboratory‐based parameterizations for ice nucleation by desert dust within 1 to 2 orders of magnitude. The small variability in ns values determined from our measurements (within about 1 order of magnitude) is striking given that the back trajectory analysis suggests that the sources of dust were geographically diverse. This is consistent with previous work, which indicates that desert dust's ice‐nucleating activity is only weakly dependent on source.

Abstract. Recent research suggests that under certain temperature and relative humidity conditions atmospheric aerosol may be present in the form of a glassy solid. In order to understand the impacts that this may have on aerosolcloud interactions and atmospheric chemistry, knowledge of water diffusion within such aerosol particles is required. Here, a method is described in which Raman spectroscopy is used to observe D 2 O diffusion in high-viscosity aqueous solutions, enabling a quantitative assessment of water diffusion coefficients, D water , as a function of relative humidity. Results for sucrose solutions compare well with literature data at 23.5 ± 0.3 • C, and demonstrate that water diffusion is slow (D water ∼ 5 × 10 −17 m 2 s −1 ), but not arrested, just below the glass transition at a water activity of 0.2. Room temperature water diffusion coefficients are also presented for aqueous levoglucosan and an aqueous mixture of raffinose, dicarboxylic acids and ammonium sulphate: at low humidity, diffusion is retarded but still occurs on millisecond to second timescales in atmospherically relevant-sized particles. The effect of gel formation on diffusion in magnesium sulfate solutions is shown to be markedly different from the gradual decrease in diffusion coefficients of highly viscous liquids. We show that using the Stokes-Einstein equation to determine diffusion timescales from viscosity leads to values which are more than 5 orders of magnitude too big, which emphasises the need to make measurements of diffusion coefficients. In addition, comparison of bounce fraction data for levoglucosan with measured diffusion data reveals that even when particles bounce the diffusion timescales for water are a fraction of a second for a 100 nm particle. This suggests a high bounce fraction does not necessarily indicate retarded water diffusion.