Fluency is a metaphor for flowing, effortless, well-practiced, and accurate performance. Current practice in fluency building involves increasing the frequency of free-operant performances. Free-operant performance is defined as continuous responding in the presence of discriminative stimuli that are either varied or not varied from response to response. Free-operant performance is also distinguished from discrete-trial performance. Frequency-building procedures are also described, including defining the learning channel and stimulus control topography of a component performance (called a pinpoint), selecting an appropriate timing period, and displaying stimuli so that no performance ceilings occur. During frequency building, frequencies of pinpoints are continuously charted on standard celeration charts. Frequencies are increased to empirically derived performance standards, or aims, that predict retention, endurance, stability, application, and adduction of performance. Frequency is also described as a dimension of performance, not simply its measurement. Frequency building is described as possibly facilitating contingency adduction.

An approach to a functional analysis of delusional speech and hallucinatory behavior is described and discussed using concepts found in Goldiamond's (1975a and 1984) nonlinear contingency analysis and Skinner's Verbal Behavior (1957). This synthesis draws upon and concords with research from the animal laboratory, with the extensive experimental literatures on stimulus control and signal detection theory, and with our own clinical experiences.In this formulation, delusional speech and hallucinatory behavior are viewed as successful operants. Accordingly, we argue that such behaviors can be considered adaptive and rational, rather than maladaptive and irrational, when analyzed within a model of consequential governance that includes alternative sets of contingencies. Several clinical examples are offered to illustrate both analytic procedures and the design of systemic treatment programs based upon a behavioral contingency analysis derived from a natural science of behavior. Throughout, we emphasize the consequential governance of these clinically important classes of behavior, in contrast to other approaches which suggest formal similarities to operant verbal behavior but largely ignore the role of consequential contingencies.

But there is more. John "sees" Sam and what he is doing. When John reads that the "new bike [is] leaning against the tree, " he sees a sparkling bicycle, not an old, dirty one, and he sees it on an angle against a tree, not held up by a kickstand. John may also feel some of Sam's excitement. 1 Next, John reads the question, "How did Sam feel when he saw his new bicycle?" Again, he hears the words. He then reads the possible answers: "sad, happy, funny. " But this time he also hears himself say, "It wants me to guess at how Sam feels. I think funny sounds good. " He then puts a mark next to "funny. " Jeffrey has a different experience. Like John, he visualizes Sam and what he is doing. When Jeffrey reads that the "new bike [is] 1 See philosopher Ted Cohen's (2008) book, Thinking of Others: On the Talent for Metaphor, for an outstanding treatment of the relation of text to emotions and personal perspective.

THIS STUDY ADDRESSED THE QUESTION: Can novel social behavior arise even though the organism has had no explicit training in that particular social pattern? Seven pigeons were trained individually to peck keys for brief access to food. Four of these birds were also trained to peck two "switching keys" which, at first, raised or lowered the requirements on their own food keys. Later, these switching keys no longer affected an animal's own requirements, but raised or lowered the requirements imposed on a second pigeon working concurrently for food in an adjacent chamber. The second animal was trained only on the food key. In each such pair, the pigeon trained on the switching keys reliably pecked whichever one raised its partner's schedule-requirements. This novel pattern of behavior did not directly benefit the first bird, arose spontaneously as a recombination of previously established nonsocial repertoires, and seemed to be maintained entirely by its effects on the animal in the adjacent chamber.

Reading comprehension can be considered a complex human performance involving two integrated repertoires: a verbal repertoire and an investigative (generative) repertoire. This paper describes an analysis of these repertoires in terms which can ultimately inform the design of programs to teach them, using the analysis and design of Headsprout ® Reading Comprehension as an example.