This report describes the conceptual steps in reaching the design of the AWAKE experiment currently under construction at CERN. We start with an introduction to plasma wakefield acceleration and the motivation for using proton drivers. We then describe the self-modulation instability -a key to an early realization of the concept. This is then followed by the historical development of the experimental design, where the critical issues that arose and their solutions are described. We conclude with the design of the experiment as it is being realized at CERN and some words on the future outlook. A summary of the AWAKE design and construction status as presented in this conference is given in [1].

Abstract. New acceleration technology is mandatory for the future elucidation of fundamental particles and their interactions. A promising approach is to exploit the properties of plasmas. Past research has focused on creating large-amplitude plasma waves by injecting an intense laser pulse or an electron bunch into the plasma. However, the maximum energy gain of electrons accelerated in a single plasma stage is limited by the energy of the driver. Proton bunches are the most promising drivers of wakefields to accelerate electrons to the TeV energy scale in a single stage. An experimental program at CERN -the AWAKE experiment -has been launched to study in detail the important physical processes and to demonstrate the power of proton-driven plasma wakefield acceleration. Here we review the physical principles and some experimental considerations for a future proton-driven plasma wakefield accelerator.

We present measurements of the transverse and longitudinal energy spread of photoelectrons emitted from a GaAsP photocathode as a function of its degradation state. The cathode was initially activated to a state of negative electron affinity in our photocathode preparation facility, achieving a quantum efficiency of 3% at a wavelength of 532 nm. It was then transferred under XHV conditions to our transverse energy spread spectrometer, where energy spread measurements were made while the photocathode was progressively degraded through a controlled exposure to oxygen. Data have been collected under photocathode illumination at 532 nm, and the changing photoelectron energy distribution associated with the changes in the level of electron affinity due to quantum efficiency degradation through an exposure to 0.25 L of oxygen has been demonstrated. Our experiments have shown that GaAsP boasts a significantly higher resilience to degradation under exposure to oxygen than a GaAs photocathode, though it does exhibit a higher level of mean transverse energy. Coupled with the favourable published data on GaAsP photoemission response times, we conclude that GaAsP is a viable candidate material as a particle accelerator electron source.

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Increasing the quantum efficiency (QE) of metal photocathodes is in the design and development of photocathodes for free-electron laser applications. The growth of metal oxide thin films on certain metal surfaces has previously been shown to reduce the work function (WF). Using a photoemission model B. Camino et al. [Comput. Mater. Sci. 122, 331 (2016)] based on the three-step model combined with density functional theory calculations we predict that the growth of a finite number of MgO(100) or BaO(100) layers on the Ag(100) surface increases significantly the QE compared with the clean Ag(100) surface for a photon energy of 4.7 eV. Different mechanisms for affecting the QE are identified for the different metal oxide thin films. The addition of MgO(100) increases the QE due to the reduction of the WF and the direct excitation of electrons from the Ag surface to the MgO conduction band. For BaO(100) thin films, an additional mechanism is in operation as the oxide film also photoemits at this energy. We also note that a significant increase in the QE for photons with an energy of a few eV above the WF is achieved due to an increase in the inelastic mean-free path of the electrons.

The Transverse Energy Spread Spectrometer (TESS) was designed primarily to study the mean transverse energy spread of electrons emitted from photocathode electron sources at both room and liquid nitrogen temperatures as a function of quantum efficiency through analysis of the photoemission footprint. By reconfiguring the potentials applied to different detector elements, TESS can also be used to measure the mean longitudinal energy spread of photoemitted electrons. Initial plans were to use electrostatic wire meshes as a retarding element which prevents the detection of electrons with insufficient energy to overcome a variable potential barrier. However, this method has proved impractical and a new method has been proposed in which the photocathode bias potential is swept (effectively from a state of no electron emission to full emission) and the emitted photocurrent is then detected by using a photoemitted charge collector. In this article, we present the TESS set-up and analyze this new method to measure the longitudinal energy distribution curve. Experimental results are presented and compared to simulated results by utilising a custom designed tracking code.

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The (Cs,O)-activation procedure for p-GaAs(Cs,O)-photocathodes was studied with the aim of demarcating the domains of validity for the two practical models of the (Cs,O)-activation layer: The dipole layer (DL) model and the heterojunction (HJ) model. To do this, the photocathode was activated far beyond the normal maximum of quantum efficiency, and several photocathode parameters were measured periodically during this process. In doing so, the data obtained enabled us to determine the domains of validity for the DL- and HJ-models, to define more precisely the characteristic parameters of the photocathode within both of these domains and thus to reveal the peculiarities of the influence of the (Cs,O)-layer on the photoelectron escape probability.