To date, experimental and epidemiological evidence of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) adversely affecting human and animal populations has been widely debated. Notably, human health risk assessment is required for risk mitigation. The lack of human health risk assessment and management may thus unreliably regulate the quality of water resources and efficiency of treatment processes. Therefore, drinking water supply systems (DWSSs) may be still unwarranted in assuring safe access to potable drinking water. Drinking water supply, such as tap water, is an additional and crucial route of human exposure to the health risks associated with EDCs. A holistic system, incorporating continuous research in DWSS monitoring and management using multi-barrier approach, is proposed as a preventive measure to reduce human exposure to the risks associated with EDCs through drinking water consumption. The occurrence of EDCs in DWSSs and corresponding human health risk implications are analyzed using the Needs, Approaches, Benefits, and Challenges (NABC) method. Therefore, this review may act as a supportive tool in protecting human health and environmental quality from EDCs, which is essential for decision-making regarding environmental monitoring and management purposes. Subsequently, the public could have sustainable access to safer and more reliable drinking water.

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Access to safe water is a crucial factor in determining environmental sustainability, public health, and economic prosperity. Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are an environmental contaminant of growing concern, which undermine the safety of drinking water. The potential health issues of EDCs are not fully understood yet due to there being relatively scarce research on their exposure and associated risks via drinking water consumption. Because of ineffective drinking water supply systems and unknown risk perceptions of EDCs in drinking water, the role of perceived risks in ensuring access to safe drinking water remains unknown, contributing to the occurrence of such potential risks in the global water system. Integrating preventive measures with a multibarrier approach to safe drinking water is highly challenging because of the relatively low public awareness and political responsibility, as well as the nature and characteristics of EDCs themselves. In addition to reviewing the occurrence and publicperceived risks of EDCs in drinking water, this article focuses on building bases of knowledge and awareness for a better understanding of drinking water quality issues relative to the hazards surrounding EDCs from the perspectives of human exposure and health risk. A conceptual model illustrates the factors that potentially influence risk perception on drinking water quality in regard to not only EDCs but also other issues. Ensuring safe access to drinking water requires interventions that incorporate risk communication and governance, providing insights into political, economic, social, and environmental changes.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are typical endocrine disruptors found in common pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which are frequently detected in aquatic environments, especially surface water treated for drinking. However, current treatment technologies are inefficient for removing emerging endocrine disruptors, leading to the potential contamination of tap water. This study employed an optimized analytical method comprising solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) to detect APIs in tap water in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Several therapeutic classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, including anti-inflammatory drugs (dexamethasone and diclofenac), antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole and triclosan), antiepileptics (primidone), antibacterial agents (ciprofloxacin), beta-blockers (propranolol), psychoactive stimulants (caffeine), and antiparasitic drugs (diazinon), were detected in the range of < 0.03 to 21.39 ng/L, whereas chloramphenicol (an antibiotic) was below the detection limit (< 0.23 ng/L). A comparison with global data revealed the spatial variability of emerging tap water pollutants. Diclofenac accounted for the highest concentration (21.39 ng/L), followed by triclosan and ciprofloxacin (9.74 ng/L and 8.69 ng/L, respectively). Caffeine was observed in all field samples with the highest distribution at 35.32%. Caffeine and triclosan exhibited significantly different distributions in household tap water (p < 0.05). Humans are exposed to these APIs by drinking the tap water; however, the estimated risk was negligible (risk quotient < 1). APIs are useful water quality monitoring indicators for water resource conservation and water supply safety related to emerging organic contaminants; thus, API detection is important for safeguarding the environment and human health.

Fishes are a major protein food source for humans, with a high economic value in the aquaculture industry. Because endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) have been introduced into aquatic ecosystems, the exposure of humans and animals that depend on aquatic foods, especially fishes, should be seriously considered. EDCs are emerging pollutants causing global concern because they can disrupt the endocrine system in aquatic organisms, mammals, and humans. These pollutants have been released into the environment through many sources, e.g., wastewater treatment plants, terrestrial run-off (industrial activities, pharmaceuticals, and household waste), and precipitation. The use of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and fertilizers for maintaining and increasing fish health and growth also contributes to EDC pollution in the water body. Human and animal exposure to EDCs occurs via ingestion of contaminated matrices, especially aquatic foodstuffs. This paper aims to review human EDC exposure via fish consumption. In respect to the trace concentration of EDCs in fish, types of instrument and clean-up method are of great concerns.

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Emerging pollutants known as endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are a contemporary global issue, especially in aquatic ecosystems. As aquaculture production through mariculture activities in Malaysia supports food production, the concentration and distribution of EDCs in estuarine water ecosystems may have changed. Therefore, this current study aims to prepare a suitable and reliable method for application on environmental samples. Besides, this study also presented the occurrence of EDCs pollutant in Pulau Kukup, Johor, where the biggest and most active mariculture site in Malaysia takes place. Analytical methods based on a combination of solid-phase extraction with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (Solid-phase extraction (SPE)-LC-MS/MS) have been modified and optimised to examine the level of targeted EDCs contaminant. In the current study, this method displays high extraction recovery for targeted EDCs, ranging from 92.02% to 132.32%. The highest concentration detected is diclofenac (<0.47-79.89 ng/L) followed by 17β-estradiol (E2) (<5.28-31.43 ng/L) and 17αethynylestradiol (EE2) (<0.30-7.67 ng/L). The highest percentage distribution for the targeted EDCs in the current study is diclofenac, followed by EE2 and dexamethasone with the percentages of 99.44%, 89.53% and 73.23%, respectively. This current study can be a baseline assessment to understand the pollution profile of EDCs and their distribution in the estuarine water of the mariculture site throughout the world, especially in Malaysia. Owing to the significant concentration of targeted EDCs detected.